Concerning the frequency of a verb's alternation, we decided intuitively whether\nan alternation occurs 'marginally' or 'regularly'. Some alternations marked as\noccuring 'marginally' surely have to be rediscussed.
\nConcerning the Coding Frames we did not pay attention to adjuncts.
\nOften there can be created alternations of alternations. We did not mark them but in most cases we made a comment.\nWe did not establish a causative alternation.
", "latitude": 51.344339, "longitude": 12.348633}, "name": "German (Standard)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [12.348633, 51.344339]}, "id": "stan1295"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 242, "basic_codingframe_pk": 110, "original_script": "\u0433\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u044c", "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "russ1263-be-sad-1", "name": "grustit\u02b9", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 225, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 225, "jsondata": {}, "id": "russ1263-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 29, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 29, "source": null}}], "label": "grustit\u02b9", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 29, "glottocode": "russ1263", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "russ1263", "name": "Russian", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 56.0, "longitude": 38.0}, "name": "Russian"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [38.0, 56.0]}, "id": "russ1263"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 335, "basic_codingframe_pk": 176, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "hoch1243-be-sad-1", "name": "horu\u0161'ak", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 312, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 312, "jsondata": {}, "id": "hoch1243-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 13, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 13, "source": null}}], "label": "horu\u0161'ak", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0ZGNjYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "North America", "pk": 13, "glottocode": "hoch1243", "family_pk": 10, "jsondata": {}, "id": "hoch1243", "name": "Hooc\u0105k (Wisconsin Hooc\u0105k)", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 43.5, "longitude": -88.5}, "name": "Hooc\u0105k (Wisconsin Hooc\u0105k)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [271.5, 43.5]}, "id": "hoch1243"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 430, "basic_codingframe_pk": 224, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1293-be-sad-1", "name": "be sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 400, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 400, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1293-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 8, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 8, "source": null}}, {"pk": 431, "basic_codingframe_pk": 224, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1293-be-sad-2", "name": "feel sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 400, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 400, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1293-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 8, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 8, "source": null}}], "label": "be sad, feel sad", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 8, "glottocode": "stan1293", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1293", "name": "English", "description": "#### General comment\n\nIn general the task presented by English is different in many ways from that\nfaced by most other contributors, mainly on account of the vast body of existing\nresearch on valency patterns on English but also on account of the unparalleled\nresources available for English, including very large corpora and the\nEnglish-language internet.\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nI have generally constructed what seem to me to be typical-sounding sentences.\nIn many cases I've checked on the internet or in Cobuld Wordbanks Online that\nthe examples are indeed \"ordinary\" in character, but I haven't restricted myself\nat this stage to using all and only corpus-documented examples.", "markup_description": "In general the task presented by English is different in many ways from that\nfaced by most other contributors, mainly on account of the vast body of existing\nresearch on valency patterns on English but also on account of the unparalleled\nresources available for English, including very large corpora and the\nEnglish-language internet.
\nI have generally constructed what seem to me to be typical-sounding sentences.\nIn many cases I've checked on the internet or in Cobuld Wordbanks Online that\nthe examples are indeed \"ordinary\" in character, but I haven't restricted myself\nat this stage to using all and only corpus-documented examples.
", "latitude": 53.0, "longitude": -1.0}, "name": "English"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [-1.0, 53.0]}, "id": "stan1293"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 521, "basic_codingframe_pk": 240, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "bora1263-be-sad-1", "name": "\u0268\u0301d\u00e1\u00e1tsov\u00e9", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 486, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 486, "jsondata": {}, "id": "bora1263-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 4, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 4, "source": null}}], "label": "\u0268\u0301d\u00e1\u00e1tsov\u00e9", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0REMDAwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "South America", "pk": 4, "glottocode": "bora1263", "family_pk": 4, "jsondata": {}, "id": "bora1263", "name": "Bora", "description": "#### General comment\n\nany noun phrase (argument or adjunct) is always optional (except for subjects\nwith some forms of verbal predicates). It was not possible to apply a test using\nthe sentence frame suggested in the manual to distinguish between arguments and\nadjuncts. The Bora coding frames given here include all arguments/adjuncts of\nthe pre-defined role frame with the corresponding Bora case marking.\n\nThe database includes as coded alternations causative, reflexive and reciprocal\nderivation, which are all productive. There is a separate derivational system,\nwhich is relatively unproductive, which combines transitivity marking and verbal\nnumber marking (see examples under SIT). These alternations are not taken into\naccount in this database.\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nthe major resource for argument/adjunct identification is case marking which\napplies regularly to all noun phrases except that accusative case is marked only\non animates (-ke), unmarked for inanimates\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nsubjects may be cross-referenced by suffixes on the verb\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nword order is not a resource for argument identification, as it is mostly free\nexcept for some restricions on subjects: first and second person subject\npronouns procliticize to the verb, some forms of predicates require overt\nsubject noun phrases that precede the verb. If in such a construction a\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nData marked as \"elicited from native speaker\" was elicited by Frank Seifart\nduring field work in Peru in April 2010 and by telephone in March 2011.\nApplicability of alternations was also elicited on these two occasions.", "markup_description": "any noun phrase (argument or adjunct) is always optional (except for subjects\nwith some forms of verbal predicates). It was not possible to apply a test using\nthe sentence frame suggested in the manual to distinguish between arguments and\nadjuncts. The Bora coding frames given here include all arguments/adjuncts of\nthe pre-defined role frame with the corresponding Bora case marking.
\nThe database includes as coded alternations causative, reflexive and reciprocal\nderivation, which are all productive. There is a separate derivational system,\nwhich is relatively unproductive, which combines transitivity marking and verbal\nnumber marking (see examples under SIT). These alternations are not taken into\naccount in this database.
\nthe major resource for argument/adjunct identification is case marking which\napplies regularly to all noun phrases except that accusative case is marked only\non animates (-ke), unmarked for inanimates
\nsubjects may be cross-referenced by suffixes on the verb
\nword order is not a resource for argument identification, as it is mostly free\nexcept for some restricions on subjects: first and second person subject\npronouns procliticize to the verb, some forms of predicates require overt\nsubject noun phrases that precede the verb. If in such a construction a
\nData marked as \"elicited from native speaker\" was elicited by Frank Seifart\nduring field work in Peru in April 2010 and by telephone in March 2011.\nApplicability of alternations was also elicited on these two occasions.
", "latitude": -2.16666666667, "longitude": -72.3333333333}, "name": "Bora"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [287.6666666667, -2.16666666667]}, "id": "bora1263"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 612, "basic_codingframe_pk": 291, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "sril1245-be-sad-1", "name": "suusa", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 570, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 570, "jsondata": {}, "id": "sril1245-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 31, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 31, "source": null}}], "label": "suusa", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwOTkwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 31, "glottocode": "sril1245", "family_pk": 2, "jsondata": {}, "id": "sril1245", "name": "Sri Lanka Malay", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 6.92, "longitude": 79.86}, "name": "Sri Lanka Malay"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [79.86, 6.92]}, "id": "sril1245"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 695, "basic_codingframe_pk": 305, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Unknown", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "yaqu1251-be-sad-1", "name": "rojikte", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 649, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 649, "jsondata": {}, "id": "yaqu1251-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 33, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 33, "source": null}}], "label": "rojikte", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNMiAzNiBMMzggMzYgTDIwIDUgTDIgMzYiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMDAwREQ7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "North America", "pk": 33, "glottocode": "yaqu1251", "family_pk": 21, "jsondata": {}, "id": "yaqu1251", "name": "Yaqui", "description": "#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nThe Yaqui language exhibits a nominative-accusative case marking on nouns and\npronouns. And also a distinction between nominative, accusative, genitive and\nobject-of-postposition forms in the pronominal system.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nThe Yaqui language exhibits a preference for SOV word order. All lexical and\npronominal arguments are overtly expressed, except for third person.\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nMost of the examples used in this database come from elicitation with a native\nspeaker of Yaqui. Some other examples (few) come from the Dictionary of\nYaqui-Spanish and Spanish-Yaqui by Estrada et al (2010). When the source of one\nexample is not marked, it comes from elicitation.", "markup_description": "The Yaqui language exhibits a nominative-accusative case marking on nouns and\npronouns. And also a distinction between nominative, accusative, genitive and\nobject-of-postposition forms in the pronominal system.
\nThe Yaqui language exhibits a preference for SOV word order. All lexical and\npronominal arguments are overtly expressed, except for third person.
\nMost of the examples used in this database come from elicitation with a native\nspeaker of Yaqui. Some other examples (few) come from the Dictionary of\nYaqui-Spanish and Spanish-Yaqui by Estrada et al (2010). When the source of one\nexample is not marked, it comes from elicitation.
", "latitude": 27.5, "longitude": -110.25}, "name": "Yaqui"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [249.75, 27.5]}, "id": "yaqu1251"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 799, "basic_codingframe_pk": 320, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "indo1316-be-sad-1", "name": "sedih", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 734, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 734, "jsondata": {}, "id": "indo1316-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 16, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 16, "source": null}}], "label": "sedih", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwOTkwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Papunesia", "pk": 16, "glottocode": "indo1316", "family_pk": 2, "jsondata": {}, "id": "indo1316", "name": "Jakarta Indonesian", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": -6.20924, "longitude": 106.833729}, "name": "Jakarta Indonesian"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [106.833729, -6.20924]}, "id": "indo1316"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 904, "basic_codingframe_pk": 337, "original_script": "\uc2ac\ud504\ub2e4", "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "Korean experiencer verbs such as this one have attracted considerable attention within and outside Korean linguistics, since they seem to permit double-nominative case frames (see Yeon 2003: 49ff.). It is not clear whether an DAT-NOM case frame would be allowed with BE SAID, although many sources such as the former one often claim that Korean experiencer verbs allow for such a case frame. These examples sound a bit stilted to me, which is why I provided example which sound more natural to me here. Note that in spoken usage it would sound awkward to overtly mark both the experiencer and the stimulus argument with case, although this rather might have to do with information structure than argument structure.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "kore1280-be-sad-1", "name": "seulpeuda", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 824, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 824, "jsondata": {}, "id": "kore1280-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 20, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 20, "source": null}}], "label": "seulpeuda", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiM5OTAwOTk7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 20, "glottocode": "kore1280", "family_pk": 13, "jsondata": {}, "id": "kore1280", "name": "Korean (Spoken Korean as used in and around Seoul)", "description": "#### General comment\n\nKorean is spoken by approximately 70 million (Lee and Ramsey 2000: 1, Yeon 2003:\n17) people mainly on the Korean peninsula. Many varieties exist also outside the\npeninsula, reaching from Northern China far out to Central Asia. This database\nshows valency properties of Modern South Korean (henceforth Korean, see also\ndiscussion below) which is based on the dialect of Seoul (see Song 2012),\nalthough contrary to standard sources such as Sohn (1999), an emphasis has been\nput on what is commonly used in spoken usage.\n\nKorean is an agglutinating language with a basic word order often stated as SOV,\nalthough it may be flexible depending on information structure and discourse\nfactors. Word order may become less flexible as soon as case markers are\ndropped, and whenever there are double nominative or double accusative\nconstructions (see comments on ordering resources though).\n\nThe genetic affiliation of Korean is notoriously disputed, with three different\nmain stances on this: The first stance is that Korean is an Altaic language (Lee\n2008), the second that it might be distantly related to Japanese (Lee and Ramsey\n2000), and the third that it is simply a language isolate (Sohn 1999).\nEspecially the latter suggestion is highly misleading:\n\nFirstly, monographs such as Lee and Ramsey 2000 explain that it is probable that\nmultiple related languages were spoken by ancient kingdoms, and probably the\nlanguage of Shilla gave rise to what is now considered Korean. However, data\nseems to be scarce and not much can be said about the different languages spoken\non the Korean peninsula during that period.\n\nSecondly, a huge deal of socio-politically motivated language ideology is\nobvious, yet far too often overlooked in Korean linguistics (and beyond), and it\nis curious that with 'Korean' we almost always refer to Modern Standard South\nKorean. Prescriptive movements and over-standardisation (see Park 2010) seems to\nbe a popular sociolinguistic practice fed by nationalism and high pride of one's\nown language. As a consequence, regional variation is commonly downplayed within\nKorean linguistics, and as a result, material on variation of Korean covers\nrelatively few linguistic areas and is generally very dense (see King 2006, for\nexample).\n\nThe past years have seen an ongoing change of perception, at least in\nnon-capital parts of Korea as well as international linguistics. Although not\nwidely acknowledged yet, Jeju spoken in Jeju Province has been classified as\na critically endangered language (Moseley 2010), and renowned figures in the\nfield of endangered languages and Korean linguistics (Matthias Brenzinger, p.c.\nand William O'Grady, p.c.) support the view that Korean is only a language\nisolate by ideology, but not by empirical fact, since it should more\nappropriately seen as constituting a small Koreanic language family of at least\ntwo languages (see Kang 2007 for a rough sketch of Korean's little sister\nlanguage Jeju).\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nKorean uses case marking to flag verbal arguments. Syntactically, case markers\nmay be affixed to simple nouns and noun phrases. The syntactic status of case\nmarkers is disputed, with some counting them all as postpositions (see Yeon\n2003: 22 or Sohn 1999: 293 for an overview); and also the number of different\ncases is not agreed upon. Case stacking is possible on nouns. Case markers are\ncommonly dropped in colloquial speech and give rise to certain ambiguities. The\ndifferences between colloquial and literary Korean have not been acknowledged\nenough in the literature, and some of the content of this database might seem\nwrong to some scholars who have been trained in a Korean schooling system. The\nappearance of nominative and accusative case markers may depend on discourse\nfactors similar to differential argument marking (see Lee and Thompson 1989, as\none of few studies), with more extreme (but certainly more interesting) studies\nsuggesting that Korean 'case' markers might not be case markers at all (cf.\nSch\u00fctze 2001).\n\nNote that with respect to the dative case marking, there seems to be sort of\na differential marking in Korean where only animate nouns can receive dative\nmarking, and inanimate nouns in corresponding functions receive locative\nmarking.\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nKorean verbs do not inflect with respect to person, number or gender. A special\ncase might be the agglutination of the honorific suffix -si- which is coreferent\nwith an A or S argument, and never co-occurs with the first person being the\nsubject of a verb due to sociolinguistic motivations.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nMany scholars (for example Yeon 2003: 18 or Sohn 1999: 293) see Korean as\na scrambling language where the order of constituents is fairly free as long as\nthe predicate comes last. This conclusion has been drawn on the simple\nobservation that as long as every NP in a sentence bears case marking, putting\nthe constituents in different order does not seem to lead to ungrammaticality.\n\nFrom the viewpoint of how Korean is actually used, the generalisations on Korean\nword order are far too simplistic. As shown in a few examples in this database,\nfor example one in the layout for GIVE, case markers are not employed as often\nas a reference grammar might suggest, and the lack of case marking on NPs often\nleads to strict word order. Furthermore, in cases where we have double\nnominative or double accusative constructions the word order of the verbal\narguments is fairly fixed. There are interesting studies on Japanese however\n(cf. Hinds 1981) which suggest that this 'fixed' word order might exist only in\nthe 'intuition' of a native speaker (or more specifically, my humble self),\nsince it has been reported that Japanese grammarians frequently utter the same\nthread of thought, although actual spoken Japanese shows that the abovementioned\nword order variations might well be possible under certain conditions.\n\nAs Sohn (1999: 293) himself mentions, \"in actual utterances, a speaker tends to\nplace an animate, definite and/or specific noun phrase before the other noun\nphrases\", and observing 'free word order' in Korean should rather be taken with\na pinch of salt.\n\nAlso, Korean word order and case marking seems to ineract in a very complex way\nwith information structure, referentiality and definiteness. This is an area\nthat has been widely neglected in the study of Korean. The study of these areas\nshould show that Korean word order is by far not that 'liberal' as is constantly\nreiterated in grammatical descriptions.\n\n#### Criteria used when judging if an alternation occurs regularly/marginally/never\n\n\"Regularly\" means that a verb in the alternated form under discussion is\ngrammatically acceptable and common to me. \"Marginally\" means that subjectively,\nI have not come across these constructions very frequently, or that a verb in\nthis alternation sounds quite odd, maybe because I would not use the verb that\nway but rather use an alternative paraphrase. It can also mean that I am simply\nnot sure if you can say that this way because I have never had the need to. As\nyou can see, verbs marked as \"marginally\" are marked as such more various\nreasons which may depend more on my individual meta-linguistic judgment. For\nthis reason I have always tried to avoid ticking this option as much as I could.\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nThe data is based on introspection of the contributor (Soung-U Kim),\na German-born male linguist of Korean descent, as well as on the grammatical\njudgment of two persons consulted for his BA thesis (completed in 2011), with\ntwo other persons consulted in 2013/2014 during the elaboration of this\ndatabase. Whenever the grammatically of an expression does not seem to be\nuniversally acceptable, I indicated it in the comment field. Sometimes I googled\nthe existence of some forms I use (in order to maximally exclude idiolectal and\nbilingual interference), but I am aware that this method may have its pitfalls\nas well and should be seen under a sceptical eye. Note that although I did not\nreceive Korean schooling, I spent several years in Korea as a child, with\nSouthern Jeolla Korean being my L1. I am well aware of the problems of data\ncollection through introspection, and surely studies on Korean with a much\ngreater range of native speakers (who have grown up in Seoul) will show much\nmore reliable data than the present set. I hope that the present database can\nrather give some 'nudges' into directions of more sophisticated research.\n\nA lot of 'verb entries' are either complex predicates or tend to be used as\nsuch, and I have given some information in each entry. As mentioned, a special\nemphasis has been put on the naturalness of certain verb forms and constructions\n(see FRIGHTEN, for example), and contrary to well-known sources such as Yeon\n(2003) I have decided basic coding patterns rather following my intuition on the\nnaturalness of a construction in informal usage, and several examples show\nspoken Korean which differs quite strongly from the Korean normally shown in\ngrammars.\n\nThe transcription of Korean follows the regulations of the Revised Romanisation\nof 2000. Primary texts in examples indicate the actual pronunciation of Korean\nmorphemes (largely excluding phonological changes happening across wod\nboundaries), with the spacing following the Korean script. The analyzed text\nstrictly follows a phonemic representation, which also applies to the verb\nentries. The glossing follows the Leipzig Glossing rules. The original script\nfields sometimes contain differently romanised examples from existing monographs\nin English.\n\nPersonal pronouns only exist for 1st and 2nd person. However, for third person\ndemonstratives sometimes I have chosen 3SG as their gloss since demostratives in\nKorean can be quite complex, involving a three-way distinction into proximal,\nmedial and distal, and behaving much like nouns in terms of the affixes they can\ntake on.\n\nWhenever a verb is discussed here that is actually included in the database,\nI tried to write it in capital letters.", "markup_description": "Korean is spoken by approximately 70 million (Lee and Ramsey 2000: 1, Yeon 2003:\n17) people mainly on the Korean peninsula. Many varieties exist also outside the\npeninsula, reaching from Northern China far out to Central Asia. This database\nshows valency properties of Modern South Korean (henceforth Korean, see also\ndiscussion below) which is based on the dialect of Seoul (see Song 2012),\nalthough contrary to standard sources such as Sohn (1999), an emphasis has been\nput on what is commonly used in spoken usage.
\nKorean is an agglutinating language with a basic word order often stated as SOV,\nalthough it may be flexible depending on information structure and discourse\nfactors. Word order may become less flexible as soon as case markers are\ndropped, and whenever there are double nominative or double accusative\nconstructions (see comments on ordering resources though).
\nThe genetic affiliation of Korean is notoriously disputed, with three different\nmain stances on this: The first stance is that Korean is an Altaic language (Lee\n2008), the second that it might be distantly related to Japanese (Lee and Ramsey\n2000), and the third that it is simply a language isolate (Sohn 1999).\nEspecially the latter suggestion is highly misleading:
\nFirstly, monographs such as Lee and Ramsey 2000 explain that it is probable that\nmultiple related languages were spoken by ancient kingdoms, and probably the\nlanguage of Shilla gave rise to what is now considered Korean. However, data\nseems to be scarce and not much can be said about the different languages spoken\non the Korean peninsula during that period.
\nSecondly, a huge deal of socio-politically motivated language ideology is\nobvious, yet far too often overlooked in Korean linguistics (and beyond), and it\nis curious that with 'Korean' we almost always refer to Modern Standard South\nKorean. Prescriptive movements and over-standardisation (see Park 2010) seems to\nbe a popular sociolinguistic practice fed by nationalism and high pride of one's\nown language. As a consequence, regional variation is commonly downplayed within\nKorean linguistics, and as a result, material on variation of Korean covers\nrelatively few linguistic areas and is generally very dense (see King 2006, for\nexample).
\nThe past years have seen an ongoing change of perception, at least in\nnon-capital parts of Korea as well as international linguistics. Although not\nwidely acknowledged yet, Jeju spoken in Jeju Province has been classified as\na critically endangered language (Moseley 2010), and renowned figures in the\nfield of endangered languages and Korean linguistics (Matthias Brenzinger, p.c.\nand William O'Grady, p.c.) support the view that Korean is only a language\nisolate by ideology, but not by empirical fact, since it should more\nappropriately seen as constituting a small Koreanic language family of at least\ntwo languages (see Kang 2007 for a rough sketch of Korean's little sister\nlanguage Jeju).
\nKorean uses case marking to flag verbal arguments. Syntactically, case markers\nmay be affixed to simple nouns and noun phrases. The syntactic status of case\nmarkers is disputed, with some counting them all as postpositions (see Yeon\n2003: 22 or Sohn 1999: 293 for an overview); and also the number of different\ncases is not agreed upon. Case stacking is possible on nouns. Case markers are\ncommonly dropped in colloquial speech and give rise to certain ambiguities. The\ndifferences between colloquial and literary Korean have not been acknowledged\nenough in the literature, and some of the content of this database might seem\nwrong to some scholars who have been trained in a Korean schooling system. The\nappearance of nominative and accusative case markers may depend on discourse\nfactors similar to differential argument marking (see Lee and Thompson 1989, as\none of few studies), with more extreme (but certainly more interesting) studies\nsuggesting that Korean 'case' markers might not be case markers at all (cf.\nSch\u00fctze 2001).
\nNote that with respect to the dative case marking, there seems to be sort of\na differential marking in Korean where only animate nouns can receive dative\nmarking, and inanimate nouns in corresponding functions receive locative\nmarking.
\nKorean verbs do not inflect with respect to person, number or gender. A special\ncase might be the agglutination of the honorific suffix -si- which is coreferent\nwith an A or S argument, and never co-occurs with the first person being the\nsubject of a verb due to sociolinguistic motivations.
\nMany scholars (for example Yeon 2003: 18 or Sohn 1999: 293) see Korean as\na scrambling language where the order of constituents is fairly free as long as\nthe predicate comes last. This conclusion has been drawn on the simple\nobservation that as long as every NP in a sentence bears case marking, putting\nthe constituents in different order does not seem to lead to ungrammaticality.
\nFrom the viewpoint of how Korean is actually used, the generalisations on Korean\nword order are far too simplistic. As shown in a few examples in this database,\nfor example one in the layout for GIVE, case markers are not employed as often\nas a reference grammar might suggest, and the lack of case marking on NPs often\nleads to strict word order. Furthermore, in cases where we have double\nnominative or double accusative constructions the word order of the verbal\narguments is fairly fixed. There are interesting studies on Japanese however\n(cf. Hinds 1981) which suggest that this 'fixed' word order might exist only in\nthe 'intuition' of a native speaker (or more specifically, my humble self),\nsince it has been reported that Japanese grammarians frequently utter the same\nthread of thought, although actual spoken Japanese shows that the abovementioned\nword order variations might well be possible under certain conditions.
\nAs Sohn (1999: 293) himself mentions, \"in actual utterances, a speaker tends to\nplace an animate, definite and/or specific noun phrase before the other noun\nphrases\", and observing 'free word order' in Korean should rather be taken with\na pinch of salt.
\nAlso, Korean word order and case marking seems to ineract in a very complex way\nwith information structure, referentiality and definiteness. This is an area\nthat has been widely neglected in the study of Korean. The study of these areas\nshould show that Korean word order is by far not that 'liberal' as is constantly\nreiterated in grammatical descriptions.
\n\"Regularly\" means that a verb in the alternated form under discussion is\ngrammatically acceptable and common to me. \"Marginally\" means that subjectively,\nI have not come across these constructions very frequently, or that a verb in\nthis alternation sounds quite odd, maybe because I would not use the verb that\nway but rather use an alternative paraphrase. It can also mean that I am simply\nnot sure if you can say that this way because I have never had the need to. As\nyou can see, verbs marked as \"marginally\" are marked as such more various\nreasons which may depend more on my individual meta-linguistic judgment. For\nthis reason I have always tried to avoid ticking this option as much as I could.
\nThe data is based on introspection of the contributor (Soung-U Kim),\na German-born male linguist of Korean descent, as well as on the grammatical\njudgment of two persons consulted for his BA thesis (completed in 2011), with\ntwo other persons consulted in 2013/2014 during the elaboration of this\ndatabase. Whenever the grammatically of an expression does not seem to be\nuniversally acceptable, I indicated it in the comment field. Sometimes I googled\nthe existence of some forms I use (in order to maximally exclude idiolectal and\nbilingual interference), but I am aware that this method may have its pitfalls\nas well and should be seen under a sceptical eye. Note that although I did not\nreceive Korean schooling, I spent several years in Korea as a child, with\nSouthern Jeolla Korean being my L1. I am well aware of the problems of data\ncollection through introspection, and surely studies on Korean with a much\ngreater range of native speakers (who have grown up in Seoul) will show much\nmore reliable data than the present set. I hope that the present database can\nrather give some 'nudges' into directions of more sophisticated research.
\nA lot of 'verb entries' are either complex predicates or tend to be used as\nsuch, and I have given some information in each entry. As mentioned, a special\nemphasis has been put on the naturalness of certain verb forms and constructions\n(see FRIGHTEN, for example), and contrary to well-known sources such as Yeon\n(2003) I have decided basic coding patterns rather following my intuition on the\nnaturalness of a construction in informal usage, and several examples show\nspoken Korean which differs quite strongly from the Korean normally shown in\ngrammars.
\nThe transcription of Korean follows the regulations of the Revised Romanisation\nof 2000. Primary texts in examples indicate the actual pronunciation of Korean\nmorphemes (largely excluding phonological changes happening across wod\nboundaries), with the spacing following the Korean script. The analyzed text\nstrictly follows a phonemic representation, which also applies to the verb\nentries. The glossing follows the Leipzig Glossing rules. The original script\nfields sometimes contain differently romanised examples from existing monographs\nin English.
\nPersonal pronouns only exist for 1st and 2nd person. However, for third person\ndemonstratives sometimes I have chosen 3SG as their gloss since demostratives in\nKorean can be quite complex, involving a three-way distinction into proximal,\nmedial and distal, and behaving much like nouns in terms of the affixes they can\ntake on.
\nWhenever a verb is discussed here that is actually included in the database,\nI tried to write it in capital letters.
", "latitude": 36.6331621, "longitude": 128.23242188}, "name": "Korean (Spoken Korean as used in and around Seoul)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [128.23242188, 36.6331621]}, "id": "kore1280"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 997, "basic_codingframe_pk": 366, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "/nkay-uwe-ti\u0294/; CPL-get.ground-living.core", "jsondata": {}, "id": "zenz1235-be-sad-1", "name": "nkay-uwe-t\u012b\u0294", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 909, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 909, "jsondata": {}, "id": "zenz1235-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 36, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 36, "source": null}}], "label": "nkay-uwe-t\u012b\u0294", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNMiAzNiBMMzggMzYgTDIwIDUgTDIgMzYiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiM5OTAwOTk7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "North America", "pk": 36, "glottocode": "zenz1235", "family_pk": 23, "jsondata": {}, "id": "zenz1235", "name": "Zenzontepec Chatino", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 16.5334303, "longitude": -97.4953304}, "name": "Zenzontepec Chatino"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [262.5046696, 16.5334303]}, "id": "zenz1235"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1103, "basic_codingframe_pk": 397, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "Experiencer object construction", "jsondata": {}, "id": "nenn1238-be-sad-1", "name": "weiweiy\u00e4m r\u00e4ms", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 997, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 997, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nenn1238-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 26, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 26, "source": null}}], "label": "weiweiy\u00e4m r\u00e4ms", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMEZGMDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Papunesia", "pk": 26, "glottocode": "nenn1238", "family_pk": 17, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nenn1238", "name": "Nen", "description": "#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nCase (ergative/absolutive), around 12 case suffixes. ERG/ABS neutralisation in\nsingular case forms of pronouns only.\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nVerb indexes up to two arguments, undergoer by prefix and actor by suffix. Only\naround 25 verbs are morphologically intransitive: all but 4 of them belonging to\na special 'positional' class, the rest being 'be', 'come' (lit. hither-be), 'go'\n(lit. 'thither-be') and 'walk'. Other syntactically monovalent verbs use\na morphologically middle construction with a person/number-invariant prefix plus\na person/number sensitive suffix. The 'undergoer' verb prefixes are used for\nboth direct and indirect objects, though these are flagged by different cases\n(absolutive and dative) on the corresponding free NPs.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nWord order is predominantly SOV (i.e. APV), though with some flexibility allowed\nby discourse factors. However, in the very productive 'experiencer object'\nconstruction used for most physical sensations like pain or disease, however,\nthe order is PAV, i.e. the experiencer of the pain is generally placed first\ndespite the fact that on other grounds it is the undergoer: it takes absolutive\ncase and is cross-reference by the undergoer prefix.", "markup_description": "Case (ergative/absolutive), around 12 case suffixes. ERG/ABS neutralisation in\nsingular case forms of pronouns only.
\nVerb indexes up to two arguments, undergoer by prefix and actor by suffix. Only\naround 25 verbs are morphologically intransitive: all but 4 of them belonging to\na special 'positional' class, the rest being 'be', 'come' (lit. hither-be), 'go'\n(lit. 'thither-be') and 'walk'. Other syntactically monovalent verbs use\na morphologically middle construction with a person/number-invariant prefix plus\na person/number sensitive suffix. The 'undergoer' verb prefixes are used for\nboth direct and indirect objects, though these are flagged by different cases\n(absolutive and dative) on the corresponding free NPs.
\nWord order is predominantly SOV (i.e. APV), though with some flexibility allowed\nby discourse factors. However, in the very productive 'experiencer object'\nconstruction used for most physical sensations like pain or disease, however,\nthe order is PAV, i.e. the experiencer of the pain is generally placed first\ndespite the fact that on other grounds it is the undergoer: it takes absolutive\ncase and is cross-reference by the undergoer prefix.
", "latitude": -8.581021, "longitude": 142.119141}, "name": "Nen"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [142.119141, -8.581021]}, "id": "nenn1238"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1203, "basic_codingframe_pk": 412, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": "various idiomatic expressions: 'the heart is sore'; 'the heart is not well', etc.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "nuuu1241-be-sad-1", "name": "idiomatic expressions", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1083, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1083, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nuuu1241-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 27, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 27, "source": null}}], "label": "idiomatic expressions", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMEZGRkY7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Africa", "pk": 27, "glottocode": "nuuu1241", "family_pk": 18, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nuuu1241", "name": "N\u01c0\u01c0ng", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": -28.434883, "longitude": 21.31897}, "name": "N\u01c0\u01c0ng"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [21.31897, -28.434883]}, "id": "nuuu1241"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1295, "basic_codingframe_pk": 434, "original_script": "\u062d\u0632\u064a\u0646", "simplex_or_complex": "Unknown", "comment": "no verbal counterpart; BE SAD is expressed by an adjective phrase (h\u0323az\u012bnun) marked by the nominative case as a predicate in a verbless sentence (if the time reference is present and the proposition of the sentence is positive). The adjective phrase agrees with the subject noun phrase in number and gender. If the time reference of the sentence is future or past, a copula (k\u0101na) is needed, that flags the subject of the sentence. If the proposition is negative, a negative copula (laysa) is used (in present tense) that flags the subject of the sentence. With a copula the predicate adjective phrase is marked by accusative. verb: h\u0323azana 'to mourn'", "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1318-be-sad-1", "name": "h\u0323az\u012bnun", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1169, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1169, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1318-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 25, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 25, "source": null}}], "label": "h\u0323az\u012bnun", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiNGRkZGRkY7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 25, "glottocode": "stan1318", "family_pk": 16, "jsondata": {}, "id": "stan1318", "name": "Modern Standard Arabic (Modern Standard Arabic)", "description": "#### General comment\n\n * Language family: Afro Asiatic > Semitic > Centralsemitic > Arabic\n * National language in 26 states\n * In all Arabic speaking communities there is a Diglossical situation with three varieties of Arabic:\n 1. Arabic Vernaculars - varieties of Arabic dialects, learned as a native language\n 2. Classical Arabic (CA) - the language of the Quran used in liturgical acts\n 3. Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) - used as lingua franca in interdialectical comunication, in media, education, street-signs, etc.; acquired as L2 through education\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\n * MSA is an accusative language and has a three-case system:MSA is a VSO language with no fixed word order.
\nAround 90 % of the data is elicited and consulted with two native speakers of\nhasaniya (dialect of Arabic in Mauretania) both fluently speaking MSA.
\nAdditional data is gained from naturalistic written texts of modern Arabic\nliteratur, source: http://arabicorpus.byu.edu/
", "latitude": 27.96, "longitude": 43.85}, "name": "Modern Standard Arabic (Modern Standard Arabic)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [43.85, 27.96]}, "id": "stan1318"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1387, "basic_codingframe_pk": 445, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "to be sad", "jsondata": {}, "id": "bezh1248-be-sad-1", "name": "ur\u0263elli\u019b'a yaqal", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1257, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1257, "jsondata": {}, "id": "bezh1248-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 3, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 3, "source": null}}], "label": "ur\u0263elli\u019b'a yaqal", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6Izk5MDA5OTtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 3, "glottocode": "bezh1248", "family_pk": 3, "jsondata": {}, "id": "bezh1248", "name": "Bezhta", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 42.12, "longitude": 46.03}, "name": "Bezhta"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [46.03, 42.12]}, "id": "bezh1248"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1478, "basic_codingframe_pk": 556, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Unknown", "comment": "In the impersonal form the predicate is in the plural, following the general rule whereby in the impersonal pattern with the reflexive morpheme the nominal form (past participle with unaccusatives, adjectives and nouns) is in the plural.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "ital1282-be-sad-1", "name": "essere triste", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1345, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1345, "jsondata": {}, "id": "ital1282-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 15, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 15, "source": null}}], "label": "essere triste", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 15, "glottocode": "ital1282", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "ital1282", "name": "Italian (Standard Italian)", "description": "#### General comment\n\nItalian is a nominative-accusative language, with some domains where the\nencoding of arguments follows an active and marginally an ergative patterning.\nThe syntactic function of arguments is signalled by agreement and word order for\nthe nuclear arguments of the clause, A and P. Recipients and other non-core and\nperipheral arguments (i.e., adjuncts) are expressed by means of prepositions.\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nThere are no cases, apart from a residual accusative and dative form for clitic\npronouns, used, respectively, for core and non-core arguments (e.g., recipients,\nlocative adjuncts etc.). Most typically peripheral arguments, i.e., adjuncts,\nare coded through prepositional phrases.\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nAgreement is always with the A/S argument in simple tenses. In compound tenses\nthere occurs split agreement when P is realized by a pronoun: the finite verb\nalways agrees with A, whilst the past participle agrees with the pronominal\nP (ergative orientation). S always agrees with the finite verb in simple tenses.\nIn compound tenses the past participle agrees with S if the verb is\nunaccusative, whilst it reverts to the unmarked masculine singular if the verb\nis unergative.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nSyntactically, Italian is an SVO language, characterized by pragmatic rigidity\nand relative syntactic freedom, with tension between the basic SV(O) order and\na pragmatic principle, whereby focal P arguments occur after the verb (Bentley\n2006: 363, 368-370, 2008 and references therein).\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nDictionaries, scientific literature, naturalistic written examples, constructed\nby native speaker linguists, the Online Corpus of Written Italian ItWac (Baroni\n& Kilgariff 2006).", "markup_description": "Italian is a nominative-accusative language, with some domains where the\nencoding of arguments follows an active and marginally an ergative patterning.\nThe syntactic function of arguments is signalled by agreement and word order for\nthe nuclear arguments of the clause, A and P. Recipients and other non-core and\nperipheral arguments (i.e., adjuncts) are expressed by means of prepositions.
\nThere are no cases, apart from a residual accusative and dative form for clitic\npronouns, used, respectively, for core and non-core arguments (e.g., recipients,\nlocative adjuncts etc.). Most typically peripheral arguments, i.e., adjuncts,\nare coded through prepositional phrases.
\nAgreement is always with the A/S argument in simple tenses. In compound tenses\nthere occurs split agreement when P is realized by a pronoun: the finite verb\nalways agrees with A, whilst the past participle agrees with the pronominal\nP (ergative orientation). S always agrees with the finite verb in simple tenses.\nIn compound tenses the past participle agrees with S if the verb is\nunaccusative, whilst it reverts to the unmarked masculine singular if the verb\nis unergative.
\nSyntactically, Italian is an SVO language, characterized by pragmatic rigidity\nand relative syntactic freedom, with tension between the basic SV(O) order and\na pragmatic principle, whereby focal P arguments occur after the verb (Bentley\n2006: 363, 368-370, 2008 and references therein).
\nDictionaries, scientific literature, naturalistic written examples, constructed\nby native speaker linguists, the Online Corpus of Written Italian ItWac (Baroni\n& Kilgariff 2006).
", "latitude": 43.0, "longitude": 12.0}, "name": "Italian (Standard Italian)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [12.0, 43.0]}, "id": "ital1282"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1582, "basic_codingframe_pk": 669, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "micin\u0268\u014b 'mind', tuk- 'ache'", "jsondata": {}, "id": "chhi1245-be-sad-1", "name": "micin\u0268\u014b tuk", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1433, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1433, "jsondata": {}, "id": "chhi1245-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 5, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 5, "source": null}}, {"pk": 1583, "basic_codingframe_pk": 669, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "som 'mind', tuk- 'ache'.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "chhi1245-be-sad-2", "name": "som tuk", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1433, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1433, "jsondata": {}, "id": "chhi1245-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 5, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 5, "source": null}}], "label": "micin\u0268\u014b tuk, som tuk", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0ZGRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 5, "glottocode": "chhi1245", "family_pk": 5, "jsondata": {}, "id": "chhi1245", "name": "Chintang", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 26.947628, "longitude": 87.211189}, "name": "Chintang"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [87.211189, 26.947628]}, "id": "chhi1245"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1678, "basic_codingframe_pk": 681, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mapu1245-be-sad-1", "name": "lladk\u00fcn", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1522, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1522, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mapu1245-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 23, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 23, "source": null}}], "label": "lladk\u00fcn", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiNGRkZGMDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "South America", "pk": 23, "glottocode": "mapu1245", "family_pk": 15, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mapu1245", "name": "Mapudungun", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": -38.0, "longitude": -72.0}, "name": "Mapudungun"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [288.0, -38.0]}, "id": "mapu1245"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1784, "basic_codingframe_pk": 688, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "compound verb: n\u00e2r\u00e2 \"to think\" + -yaa < saa \"badly\"", "jsondata": {}, "id": "xara1244-be-sad-1", "name": "n\u00e2r\u00e2yaa", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1608, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1608, "jsondata": {}, "id": "xara1244-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 32, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 32, "source": null}}], "label": "n\u00e2r\u00e2yaa", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwOTkwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Papunesia", "pk": 32, "glottocode": "xara1244", "family_pk": 2, "jsondata": {}, "id": "xara1244", "name": "X\u00e2r\u00e2c\u00f9\u00f9", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": -21.6666666667, "longitude": 166.0}, "name": "X\u00e2r\u00e2c\u00f9\u00f9"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [166.0, -21.6666666667]}, "id": "xara1244"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1878, "basic_codingframe_pk": 704, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": "\u0294ah 'sore, hurt', q\u02b7ayig\u0259n 'feeling, thought'; the subject is coded on the second word by the possessive markers. lit. 'his feeling is sore'", "jsondata": {}, "id": "como1259-be-sad-1", "name": "\u0294ah q\u02b7ayig\u0259n-s", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1695, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1695, "jsondata": {}, "id": "como1259-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 30, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 30, "source": null}}], "label": "\u0294ah q\u02b7ayig\u0259n-s", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiNGRjY2MDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "North America", "pk": 30, "glottocode": "como1259", "family_pk": 20, "jsondata": {}, "id": "como1259", "name": "Sliammon", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 49.906, "longitude": -124.6179}, "name": "Sliammon"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [235.38209999999998, 49.906]}, "id": "como1259"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 1979, "basic_codingframe_pk": 737, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "perfect negation i followed by verb meaning 'happy'. there is no 'sad' verb", "jsondata": {}, "id": "emai1241-be-sad-1", "name": "no direct counterpart", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1780, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1780, "jsondata": {}, "id": "emai1241-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 7, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 7, "source": null}}], "label": "no direct counterpart", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0ZGRkZGRjtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Africa", "pk": 7, "glottocode": "emai1241", "family_pk": 6, "jsondata": {}, "id": "emai1241", "name": "Emai", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 7.08333333333, "longitude": 5.91666666667}, "name": "Emai"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [5.91666666667, 7.08333333333]}, "id": "emai1241"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2076, "basic_codingframe_pk": 748, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "even1259-be-sad-1", "name": "merge-", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1870, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1870, "jsondata": {}, "id": "even1259-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 10, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 10, "source": null}}], "label": "merge-", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkZGRjtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 10, "glottocode": "even1259", "family_pk": 8, "jsondata": {}, "id": "even1259", "name": "Evenki", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 56.0, "longitude": 125.0}, "name": "Evenki"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [125.0, 56.0]}, "id": "even1259"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2185, "basic_codingframe_pk": 759, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mand1436-be-sad-1", "name": "sunu", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 1956, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 1956, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mand1436-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 22, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 22, "source": null}}], "label": "sunu", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiNERDAwMDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Africa", "pk": 22, "glottocode": "mand1436", "family_pk": 14, "jsondata": {}, "id": "mand1436", "name": "Mandinka", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 13.4166666667, "longitude": -16.0}, "name": "Mandinka"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [-16.0, 13.4166666667]}, "id": "mand1436"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2305, "basic_codingframe_pk": 783, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "Collocation, with transitive indexing but syntactically intransitive. Lit. 'belly bad SAY/DO', i.e. 'be/have a bad stomach'. Possessor is core argument, body part additional absolutive argument. Also burru marring gagba (BE). For another equivalent see bujarl ganiyu 'be sad, sorry, weak' (complex verb).", "jsondata": {}, "id": "djam1255-be-sad-1", "name": "burru marring ganiyu", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2062, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2062, "jsondata": {}, "id": "djam1255-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 17, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 17, "source": null}}], "label": "burru marring ganiyu", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMDAwREQ7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Australia", "pk": 17, "glottocode": "djam1255", "family_pk": 11, "jsondata": {}, "id": "djam1255", "name": "Jaminjung (Both Jaminjung and Ngaliwurru varieties)", "description": "#### General comment\n\nJaminjung belongs to the small Jaminjungan (or Western Mirndi) subgroup of the\ngeographically discontinuous Mirndi family, one of the non-Pama-Nyungan families\nof northern Australia. The name Jaminjung is used here for two named varieties,\nJaminjung and Ngaliwurru, which are mutually intelligible and exhibit mainly\nlexical differences. The traditional country of Jaminjung and Ngaliwurru\nspeakers is located north and south of the Victoria River around the present-day\ntownship of Timber Creek in the Northern Territory. Jaminjung is severely\nendangered in that it is no longer acquired by children; only a few dozen\nelderly speakers are alive today.\n\nA pervasive feature of Jaminjung lexicon and grammar, which proves to be highly\nrelevant for the discussion of verb classes and alternations, is a division of\nthe \u201cverbal\u201d lexicon into two distinct parts of speech. This is an areal\nphenomenon found in a number of unrelated languages in Northern Australia.\n\nInflecting verbs (IVs), i.e. those taking obligatory pronominal prefixes and\ntense and mood marking, form a closed class with only about 35 members (with\nsome variation depending on the dialect affiliation and also the age of\nindividual speakers).\n\nUninflecting verbs (UVs; also known as \"coverbs\" or \"preverbs\" in the\nliterature) can be distinguished from IVs by the fact that they cannot take\nverbal inflections. They are also distinguishable from nominals in that they do\nnot co-occur with determiners such as demonstratives. UVs form an open class\nwhich can be expanded by loan words.\n\nPredicates in Jaminjung thus can be simple (an IV on its own) or complex (a\ncombination of an IV and one or two UVs). In addition, translation equivalents\nof verbs can be collocations involving nominals, e.g. expressions with a body\npart for feelings/pain, or expressions like gugu gardbany 'rain falls' = 'to\nrain'.\n\nMost valency alternations in Jaminjung are only relevant for complex predicates.\nA valency change in this type of alternation is achieved by combining the same\nUV with different IVs resulting e.g. in inchoative vs. causative complex\npredicates. In this database, they are therefore marked as \"UV\" preceding the\nalternation name, and are considered coded alternations even though they are not\ncoded by a dedicated valency-changing morphological marker. Note also that the\nsubstitution of different IVs with the same UV can also result in other semantic\ndifferences, e.g. in lexical aspect, deictic direction of motion, instrument\nused for contact, or other more subtle differences. In this database only\nvalency-changing alternations are considered.\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nJaminjung has a rich system of cases which formally are clitics occurring once\nor more than once in a phrase. Case marking of core arguments follows an\nergative-absolutive pattern, with optional ergativity. As a general rule, the\ncase frame used with a particular predicate, whether simple or complex, follows\nfrom the morphological transitivity of the inflecting verb (IV). That is,\na single absolutive argument occurs with intransitive IVs, and an\nergative-absolutive case frame (or double absolutive if ergative marking is\nomitted) is used with transitive IVs. Since the absolutive is unmarked, it is\nnot glossed in examples. The ergative has the form -ni ~ -di.\n\nErgative marking of A arguments is optional in Jaminjung; the presence vs.\nabsence of ergative marking depends on a variety of factors including the\nsemantics of the predicate, animacy and degree of agentivity of A, and lexical\nand grammatical aspect. Therefore, presence vs. absence of ergative marking was\nnot considered an alternation for the purposes of this database.\n\nRegular double absolutive marking used for both A and P of some bivalent atelic\npredicates (with intransitive IV), i.e. the ergative is not possible on As in\nthis case.\n\nDouble absolutive marking is also used for both NP objects of a semantically\ntrivalent predicate.\n\nDative case ( -gu ~ -wu) marks addressees or beneficiaries and also has\na purposive function; in addition a specialised purposive case (-ngurlung) is\nused by some speakers, and the possessive case -gina (usually appearing in\nadnominal function) can have a purposive use as well.\n\nSpatial cases are locative (-gi ~ -g ~ -ni), allative (-bina) and ablative\n(-ngunyi / -giyag). Specialised forms of these cases are found on inherently\nlocative expressions. An additional origin case (-nyunga) indicates spatial\norigin (as in 'the man from England') but also has a causal function.\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nFrom the point of view of indexing morphology, inflecting verbs (IVs) fall into\ntwo non-overlapping classes. Morphologically transitive verbs in their\nnon-reflexive/reciprocal form occur with a set of pronominal prefixes which\nalways index the most agentive argument (A) and in addition the patient-like (P)\nargument. With ditransitive predicates, R rather than P is usually indexed\nexcept for a marginal alternation which is possible only in the case that P is\nanimate.\n\nThe order of prefixes is usually A followed by P, although in some cases\na portmanteau prefix is used. The 3rd person singular object (P) is not overtly\nexpressed except with a 3rd person singular subject.\n\nIn one variety, nonsingular first person P prefixes have been neutralised, i.e.\nonly the first person singular prefix is used, and an enclitic pronominal\n(identical to the dative form) is used to disambiguate for number and the\ninclusive/exclusive distinction.\n\nMorphologically intransitive verbs indicate their single argument (S) by\na pronominal prefix which in most cells of the paradigm (except 2nd person\nsingular) is identical to the A prefix. Thus, indexing more or less follows\na nominative-accusative pattern.\n\nA final indexing phenomenon is the cross-referencing of dative, locative and\nallative arguments or adjuncts by an enclitic oblique (dative) pronoun. This\n\u201cclitic doubling\u201d is restricted to animate referents.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nWord order is purely pragmatically conditioned and not employed to indicate\ngrammatical roles. Noun phrases can be freely omitted if understood from context\n(zero anaphora).\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nData in this database are from both elicited and naturalistic speech recorded\nduring multiple field trips undertaken by the author between 1993 and 2008.\nOccasional examples also come from field notes and texts recorded by Mark\nHarvey, Janet Bolt, and Michael Walsh, and Dorothea Hoffmann. Examples from\naudio- or video-recorded sessions are accompanied by the file name of the audio\nfile as archived (with annotations) in the Jaminjung DoBeS archive\n(www.mpi.nl/dobes) (rather than a page nr). Examples marked as \"field notes\" are\noverheard examples. Examples with no file name information come from transcripts\nwhich are not yet linked to archived audio files.\n\nComments on conventions:\n\nIn literal glosses of complex verbs in the \"comments\" field, the gloss of the\ninflecting verb (IV) is in capitals.\n\nSince there is no infinitive form of the inflecting verb in Jaminjung and roots\nare not produced in isolation by speakers, the 3rd singular subject (+ 3rd sg\nobject for tr.verbs) past perfective form of inflecting verbs is provided\nthroughout, as this is one of the most frequent forms.\n\nBorrowings (in verb meanings) and code switches (in examples) from Kriol, the\nEnglish-lexified Creole language spoken by most Jaminjung speakers, are marked\nby angular brackets (<...>).", "markup_description": "Jaminjung belongs to the small Jaminjungan (or Western Mirndi) subgroup of the\ngeographically discontinuous Mirndi family, one of the non-Pama-Nyungan families\nof northern Australia. The name Jaminjung is used here for two named varieties,\nJaminjung and Ngaliwurru, which are mutually intelligible and exhibit mainly\nlexical differences. The traditional country of Jaminjung and Ngaliwurru\nspeakers is located north and south of the Victoria River around the present-day\ntownship of Timber Creek in the Northern Territory. Jaminjung is severely\nendangered in that it is no longer acquired by children; only a few dozen\nelderly speakers are alive today.
\nA pervasive feature of Jaminjung lexicon and grammar, which proves to be highly\nrelevant for the discussion of verb classes and alternations, is a division of\nthe \u201cverbal\u201d lexicon into two distinct parts of speech. This is an areal\nphenomenon found in a number of unrelated languages in Northern Australia.
\nInflecting verbs (IVs), i.e. those taking obligatory pronominal prefixes and\ntense and mood marking, form a closed class with only about 35 members (with\nsome variation depending on the dialect affiliation and also the age of\nindividual speakers).
\nUninflecting verbs (UVs; also known as \"coverbs\" or \"preverbs\" in the\nliterature) can be distinguished from IVs by the fact that they cannot take\nverbal inflections. They are also distinguishable from nominals in that they do\nnot co-occur with determiners such as demonstratives. UVs form an open class\nwhich can be expanded by loan words.
\nPredicates in Jaminjung thus can be simple (an IV on its own) or complex (a\ncombination of an IV and one or two UVs). In addition, translation equivalents\nof verbs can be collocations involving nominals, e.g. expressions with a body\npart for feelings/pain, or expressions like gugu gardbany 'rain falls' = 'to\nrain'.
\nMost valency alternations in Jaminjung are only relevant for complex predicates.\nA valency change in this type of alternation is achieved by combining the same\nUV with different IVs resulting e.g. in inchoative vs. causative complex\npredicates. In this database, they are therefore marked as \"UV\" preceding the\nalternation name, and are considered coded alternations even though they are not\ncoded by a dedicated valency-changing morphological marker. Note also that the\nsubstitution of different IVs with the same UV can also result in other semantic\ndifferences, e.g. in lexical aspect, deictic direction of motion, instrument\nused for contact, or other more subtle differences. In this database only\nvalency-changing alternations are considered.
\nJaminjung has a rich system of cases which formally are clitics occurring once\nor more than once in a phrase. Case marking of core arguments follows an\nergative-absolutive pattern, with optional ergativity. As a general rule, the\ncase frame used with a particular predicate, whether simple or complex, follows\nfrom the morphological transitivity of the inflecting verb (IV). That is,\na single absolutive argument occurs with intransitive IVs, and an\nergative-absolutive case frame (or double absolutive if ergative marking is\nomitted) is used with transitive IVs. Since the absolutive is unmarked, it is\nnot glossed in examples. The ergative has the form -ni ~ -di.
\nErgative marking of A arguments is optional in Jaminjung; the presence vs.\nabsence of ergative marking depends on a variety of factors including the\nsemantics of the predicate, animacy and degree of agentivity of A, and lexical\nand grammatical aspect. Therefore, presence vs. absence of ergative marking was\nnot considered an alternation for the purposes of this database.
\nRegular double absolutive marking used for both A and P of some bivalent atelic\npredicates (with intransitive IV), i.e. the ergative is not possible on As in\nthis case.
\nDouble absolutive marking is also used for both NP objects of a semantically\ntrivalent predicate.
\nDative case ( -gu ~ -wu) marks addressees or beneficiaries and also has\na purposive function; in addition a specialised purposive case (-ngurlung) is\nused by some speakers, and the possessive case -gina (usually appearing in\nadnominal function) can have a purposive use as well.
\nSpatial cases are locative (-gi ~ -g ~ -ni), allative (-bina) and ablative\n(-ngunyi / -giyag). Specialised forms of these cases are found on inherently\nlocative expressions. An additional origin case (-nyunga) indicates spatial\norigin (as in 'the man from England') but also has a causal function.
\nFrom the point of view of indexing morphology, inflecting verbs (IVs) fall into\ntwo non-overlapping classes. Morphologically transitive verbs in their\nnon-reflexive/reciprocal form occur with a set of pronominal prefixes which\nalways index the most agentive argument (A) and in addition the patient-like (P)\nargument. With ditransitive predicates, R rather than P is usually indexed\nexcept for a marginal alternation which is possible only in the case that P is\nanimate.
\nThe order of prefixes is usually A followed by P, although in some cases\na portmanteau prefix is used. The 3rd person singular object (P) is not overtly\nexpressed except with a 3rd person singular subject.
\nIn one variety, nonsingular first person P prefixes have been neutralised, i.e.\nonly the first person singular prefix is used, and an enclitic pronominal\n(identical to the dative form) is used to disambiguate for number and the\ninclusive/exclusive distinction.
\nMorphologically intransitive verbs indicate their single argument (S) by\na pronominal prefix which in most cells of the paradigm (except 2nd person\nsingular) is identical to the A prefix. Thus, indexing more or less follows\na nominative-accusative pattern.
\nA final indexing phenomenon is the cross-referencing of dative, locative and\nallative arguments or adjuncts by an enclitic oblique (dative) pronoun. This\n\u201cclitic doubling\u201d is restricted to animate referents.
\nWord order is purely pragmatically conditioned and not employed to indicate\ngrammatical roles. Noun phrases can be freely omitted if understood from context\n(zero anaphora).
\nData in this database are from both elicited and naturalistic speech recorded\nduring multiple field trips undertaken by the author between 1993 and 2008.\nOccasional examples also come from field notes and texts recorded by Mark\nHarvey, Janet Bolt, and Michael Walsh, and Dorothea Hoffmann. Examples from\naudio- or video-recorded sessions are accompanied by the file name of the audio\nfile as archived (with annotations) in the Jaminjung DoBeS archive\n(www.mpi.nl/dobes) (rather than a page nr). Examples marked as \"field notes\" are\noverheard examples. Examples with no file name information come from transcripts\nwhich are not yet linked to archived audio files.
\nComments on conventions:
\nIn literal glosses of complex verbs in the \"comments\" field, the gloss of the\ninflecting verb (IV) is in capitals.
\nSince there is no infinitive form of the inflecting verb in Jaminjung and roots\nare not produced in isolation by speakers, the 3rd singular subject (+ 3rd sg\nobject for tr.verbs) past perfective form of inflecting verbs is provided\nthroughout, as this is one of the most frequent forms.
\nBorrowings (in verb meanings) and code switches (in examples) from Kriol, the\nEnglish-lexified Creole language spoken by most Jaminjung speakers, are marked\nby angular brackets (<...>).
", "latitude": -15.0833333333, "longitude": 130.5}, "name": "Jaminjung (Both Jaminjung and Ngaliwurru varieties)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [130.5, -15.0833333333]}, "id": "djam1255"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2392, "basic_codingframe_pk": 798, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "Kanasii is an adjective, on which the transitive verb kanasimu '(She) grieves over (his death)' is made. This verb may in turn become a causative verb kanasimaseru '(His death) makes (her) grieve'.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "nucl1643-be-sad-1", "name": "kanasii", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2144, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2144, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nucl1643-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 18, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 18, "source": null}}], "label": "kanasii", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0NDQ0NDQztzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 18, "glottocode": "nucl1643", "family_pk": 9, "jsondata": {}, "id": "nucl1643", "name": "Japanese (standard)", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 35.6895, "longitude": 139.6917}, "name": "Japanese (standard)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [139.6917, 35.6895]}, "id": "nucl1643"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2478, "basic_codingframe_pk": 845, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "kett1243-be-sad-1", "name": "a\u014b\u2077-bed\u2070", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2228, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2228, "jsondata": {}, "id": "kett1243-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 19, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 19, "source": null}}], "label": "a\u014b\u2077-bed\u2070", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8cGF0aCBkPSJNOCA4IEgzMiBWMzIgSDggVjgiIHN0eWxlPSJmaWxsOiMwMDk5MDA7c3Ryb2tlOmJsYWNrO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxcHg7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVqb2luOnJvdW5kOyIvPgo8L3N2Zz4=", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 19, "glottocode": "kett1243", "family_pk": 12, "jsondata": {}, "id": "kett1243", "name": "Ket", "description": "#### General comment\n\nRE: Ommission of reflexive pronounsRE: Ommission of reflexive pronouns
\nKet verbs regularly omit the object NP verb externally and also omit the\nverb-external reflexive pronoun, but the verb-internal marker that indexes this\nvalent is never dropped for discourse reasons.
RE: Object omission (NP ommission)
\nKet regularly drops its verb-external object NP to background it in discourse.\nHowever, the verb-internal object marker remains regardless of discourse\nfunction.
Subject indexing is the same for all intransitive verbs. It varies as\nconditioned by verb status (a conjugation category).
", "latitude": 19.33, "longitude": -88.47}, "name": "Yucatec Maya (dialect of Quintana Roo, zona maya)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [271.53, 19.33]}, "id": "yuca1254"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2716, "basic_codingframe_pk": 915, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": null, "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "icel1247-be-sad-1", "name": "vera sorgm\u00e6ddur", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2422, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2422, "jsondata": {}, "id": "icel1247-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 14, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 14, "source": null}}], "label": "vera sorgm\u00e6ddur", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 14, "glottocode": "icel1247", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "icel1247", "name": "Icelandic", "description": "#### General comment\n\nIcelandic is one of the most archaic modern Germanic languages. It has\nmaintained most of the morphological distinctions from Old Icelandic, most of\nthe paradigmatic distinctions and a huge proportion of the vocabulary. Some\nphonological changes have occurred, and some word order and constructional\npatterns have fallen into disuse. Icelanders of today can read Old Icelandic\nwithout problems.\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nIcelandic has four cases, nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. These are\nmarked on nouns, pronouns, all adjectival elements and the definite article. The\ndefinite artice is cliticized on nouns, after inflectional morphemes, which in\nturn means that definite nouns in Icelandic have double case marking. Example:\n\"mann\" acc.sg., \"manni\" dat.sg, vs. \"manninn\" acc.sg.def and \"manninum\"\ndat.sg.def.\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nThere is nominative agreement in Icelandic which means that if the subject is in\nthe nominative case, the verb agrees with the subject, if the object is in the\nnominative case, the verb agrees with the object. In essence this means that\nIcelandic does not have subject-verb agreement but nominative-verb agreement.\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nIcelandic is a V2 language with a relatively fixed SVO word order in both main\nand subordinate clauses. It does not allow scrambling like German and\ntopicalizations are very rare in the spoken language. It has subject\u2013verb\ninversion, it has V1 structures, like the socalled \"Narrative Inversion\", it has\nobject shift, i.e. the rerversal of the order between an object and a sentence\nadverb, and it has \"stylistic fronting\", i.e. the preposing of a particle or an\nadverb in subjectless subordinate clauses (cf. \u00der\u00e1insson 2007).\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nJ\u00f3hanna Bar\u00f0dal is a native speaker linguist.", "markup_description": "Icelandic is one of the most archaic modern Germanic languages. It has\nmaintained most of the morphological distinctions from Old Icelandic, most of\nthe paradigmatic distinctions and a huge proportion of the vocabulary. Some\nphonological changes have occurred, and some word order and constructional\npatterns have fallen into disuse. Icelanders of today can read Old Icelandic\nwithout problems.
\nIcelandic has four cases, nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. These are\nmarked on nouns, pronouns, all adjectival elements and the definite article. The\ndefinite artice is cliticized on nouns, after inflectional morphemes, which in\nturn means that definite nouns in Icelandic have double case marking. Example:\n\"mann\" acc.sg., \"manni\" dat.sg, vs. \"manninn\" acc.sg.def and \"manninum\"\ndat.sg.def.
\nThere is nominative agreement in Icelandic which means that if the subject is in\nthe nominative case, the verb agrees with the subject, if the object is in the\nnominative case, the verb agrees with the object. In essence this means that\nIcelandic does not have subject-verb agreement but nominative-verb agreement.
\nIcelandic is a V2 language with a relatively fixed SVO word order in both main\nand subordinate clauses. It does not allow scrambling like German and\ntopicalizations are very rare in the spoken language. It has subject\u2013verb\ninversion, it has V1 structures, like the socalled \"Narrative Inversion\", it has\nobject shift, i.e. the rerversal of the order between an object and a sentence\nadverb, and it has \"stylistic fronting\", i.e. the preposing of a particle or an\nadverb in subjectless subordinate clauses (cf. \u00der\u00e1insson 2007).
\nJ\u00f3hanna Bar\u00f0dal is a native speaker linguist.
", "latitude": 65.0, "longitude": -17.0}, "name": "Icelandic"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [-17.0, 65.0]}, "id": "icel1247"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2829, "basic_codingframe_pk": 1021, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "Adjectives in this dialect (and also in most Japanese dialect) have tense distinction.", "jsondata": {}, "id": "hokk1249-be-sad-1", "name": "kanasi-i", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2524, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2524, "jsondata": {}, "id": "hokk1249-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 12, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 12, "source": null}}], "label": "kanasi-i", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0NDQ0NDQztzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 12, "glottocode": "hokk1249", "family_pk": 9, "jsondata": {}, "id": "hokk1249", "name": "Hokkaido Japanese", "description": "#### General comment\n\nBrief description of the Hokkaido dialect of Japanese\n\nIn this database, the Hokkaido dialect is used to refer to the variety of\nJapanese spoken in the northern island Hokkaido and the islands around Hokkaido.\nAccording to Ono & Okuda (1999), Japanese speakers begin to settle on the\ncoastal area of southern Hokkaido from the late 16th century. Most of the\npopulation in those days came from the northern Tohoku region. From the mid 19th\ncentury to mid 20th century, intensive immigration to Hokkaido took place from\nall the part of Japan. However, in this case, too, the majority (around 40%)\ncame from Tohoku (Ono & Okuda 1999). Consequently, the Hokkaido Dialect has\ninherited a considerable number of features from the northern Tohoku dialects.\n\nThe Hokkaido dialect has no written tradition, but some sentences reflecting\nthis dialect appear in the modern Japanese literature. The most famous example\nis the conversational part of Kanikosen 'The Crab Canning Ship' written by\nTakiji Kobayashi in 1929.\n\nThe population of Hokkaido is 5,502,944 (June 30th, 2011). However, the exact\nnumber of speakers of the Hokkaido dialect is unknown.\n\nThe Hokkaido dialect is classified as one of the eastern varieties of Japanese\ndialects and it is subdivided into the coastal variety and the inland variety.\nThe coastal variety preserves lots of characteristics of the Tohoku dialects,\nsuch as the imperative use of the conditional inflection, neutralization of /i/\nand /e/, intervocalic voicing of /k/ and /t/, spotaneous voice morphology with\n/rasar/, and so on. Certain inland dialects are reported to preserve some degree\nof dialectal features of their region of origin (Suga 2011). For example, the\ndialect spoken in Hombetsu (Nakagawa district, Tokachi) has the copula ja/zja,\nfound in the Tokushima dialect spoken in the Shikoku island. According to\nIshigaki (1976), the inland variety underwent influence from the coastal\nvariety, even though the origin of the population is not the same as that of the\ncoastal variety. The most important grammatical feature of the Hokkaido dialect\nfor this database is the existence of anticausativization with /rasar/\nsuffixation. This grammatical phenomenon is found in both varieties.\n\nThe most notable feature of this dialect is the voice system. Standard Japanese\nhas three productive voice suffixes, i.e., passive, potential and causative. On\nthe other hand, the Hokkaido dialect has four productive voice suffixes: passive\n/rare/ (traditionally, /rae/), potential /e/ or /rare/ (traditionally, /-ni\ni:/), causative /sase/ (traditionally, /rase/ or /rahe/) and spontaneous\n/rasar/. The spontaneous suffix /rasar/ is used as a marker for\nanticausativization. For the details of anticausativization in the Hokkaido\ndialect, see Sasaki & Yamazaki (2006).\n\nDue to the existence of productive antucausative morphology, the Hokkaido\ndialect displays different characteristics of the transitivity alternation from\nthat of Standard Japanese. Concerning transitivization, both Standard Japanese\nand the Hokkaido dialect have lexical and morphological causativization. For\nexample, ak-u 'open.INTR-NPST' -- ake-ru 'open.TR-NPST' and hasir-u 'run-NPST'\n-- hasir-ase-ru 'run-CAUS-NPST'. On the other hand, concerning\nintransitivization, they show difference. Standard Japanese has only lexical\nanticausativization, such as or-u 'break.TR-NPST' -- ore-ru 'break.INTR-NPST'.\nThe Hokkaido dialect has both lexical and morphological anticausativization,\ne.g., or-u 'break.TR-NPST' -- ore-ru 'break.INTR-NPST' and nur-u 'paint-NPST' --\nnur-asar-u 'paint-SP-NPST (become painted)'.\n\nThe data in this database is obtained from a relatively younger speaker in his\n30s, whose speech has lost some traditional dialectal features such as\nneutralization of /i/ and /e/ and intervocalic voicing of /k/ and /t/. However,\nanticausativization remains active in his speech.", "markup_description": "Brief description of the Hokkaido dialect of Japanese
\nIn this database, the Hokkaido dialect is used to refer to the variety of\nJapanese spoken in the northern island Hokkaido and the islands around Hokkaido.\nAccording to Ono & Okuda (1999), Japanese speakers begin to settle on the\ncoastal area of southern Hokkaido from the late 16th century. Most of the\npopulation in those days came from the northern Tohoku region. From the mid 19th\ncentury to mid 20th century, intensive immigration to Hokkaido took place from\nall the part of Japan. However, in this case, too, the majority (around 40%)\ncame from Tohoku (Ono & Okuda 1999). Consequently, the Hokkaido Dialect has\ninherited a considerable number of features from the northern Tohoku dialects.
\nThe Hokkaido dialect has no written tradition, but some sentences reflecting\nthis dialect appear in the modern Japanese literature. The most famous example\nis the conversational part of Kanikosen 'The Crab Canning Ship' written by\nTakiji Kobayashi in 1929.
\nThe population of Hokkaido is 5,502,944 (June 30th, 2011). However, the exact\nnumber of speakers of the Hokkaido dialect is unknown.
\nThe Hokkaido dialect is classified as one of the eastern varieties of Japanese\ndialects and it is subdivided into the coastal variety and the inland variety.\nThe coastal variety preserves lots of characteristics of the Tohoku dialects,\nsuch as the imperative use of the conditional inflection, neutralization of /i/\nand /e/, intervocalic voicing of /k/ and /t/, spotaneous voice morphology with\n/rasar/, and so on. Certain inland dialects are reported to preserve some degree\nof dialectal features of their region of origin (Suga 2011). For example, the\ndialect spoken in Hombetsu (Nakagawa district, Tokachi) has the copula ja/zja,\nfound in the Tokushima dialect spoken in the Shikoku island. According to\nIshigaki (1976), the inland variety underwent influence from the coastal\nvariety, even though the origin of the population is not the same as that of the\ncoastal variety. The most important grammatical feature of the Hokkaido dialect\nfor this database is the existence of anticausativization with /rasar/\nsuffixation. This grammatical phenomenon is found in both varieties.
\nThe most notable feature of this dialect is the voice system. Standard Japanese\nhas three productive voice suffixes, i.e., passive, potential and causative. On\nthe other hand, the Hokkaido dialect has four productive voice suffixes: passive\n/rare/ (traditionally, /rae/), potential /e/ or /rare/ (traditionally, /-ni\ni:/), causative /sase/ (traditionally, /rase/ or /rahe/) and spontaneous\n/rasar/. The spontaneous suffix /rasar/ is used as a marker for\nanticausativization. For the details of anticausativization in the Hokkaido\ndialect, see Sasaki & Yamazaki (2006).
\nDue to the existence of productive antucausative morphology, the Hokkaido\ndialect displays different characteristics of the transitivity alternation from\nthat of Standard Japanese. Concerning transitivization, both Standard Japanese\nand the Hokkaido dialect have lexical and morphological causativization. For\nexample, ak-u 'open.INTR-NPST' -- ake-ru 'open.TR-NPST' and hasir-u 'run-NPST'\n-- hasir-ase-ru 'run-CAUS-NPST'. On the other hand, concerning\nintransitivization, they show difference. Standard Japanese has only lexical\nanticausativization, such as or-u 'break.TR-NPST' -- ore-ru 'break.INTR-NPST'.\nThe Hokkaido dialect has both lexical and morphological anticausativization,\ne.g., or-u 'break.TR-NPST' -- ore-ru 'break.INTR-NPST' and nur-u 'paint-NPST' --\nnur-asar-u 'paint-SP-NPST (become painted)'.
\nThe data in this database is obtained from a relatively younger speaker in his\n30s, whose speech has lost some traditional dialectal features such as\nneutralization of /i/ and /e/ and intervocalic voicing of /k/ and /t/. However,\nanticausativization remains active in his speech.
", "latitude": 43.691708, "longitude": 142.866211}, "name": "Hokkaido Japanese"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [142.866211, 43.691708]}, "id": "hokk1249"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 2954, "basic_codingframe_pk": 1068, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "ainu1240-be-sad-1", "name": "mismu", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2613, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2613, "jsondata": {}, "id": "ainu1240-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 1, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 1, "source": null}}], "label": "mismu", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwMDBERDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 1, "glottocode": "ainu1240", "family_pk": 1, "jsondata": {}, "id": "ainu1240", "name": "Ainu (Southern Hokkaido)", "description": "#### General comment\n\nA genetic isolate, Ainu shows considerable dialectal variation: Hokkaido\n(Northeastern and Southwestern), Sakhalin, and Kurile groups. Ainu is\nagglutinating, polysynthetic and incorporating, with SV/AOV constituent order.\nIt is predominantly head-marking. Personal pronouns in the subject (A/S) and\nobject (O) position are often omitted: Ainu is a so-called pro-drop language but\nverbal cross-referencing markers are obligatory.\n\nSome verbs employ different stems for singular and plural. In the case of\nintransitive verbs, plurality refers to the number of S referents, while in the\ncase of transitive verbs plurality refers to the number of O or patientive\nA referents.\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nArguments do not inflect for case in Ainu: A and O are distinguished by their\nrelative position in clause structure and by verbal cross-referencing markers.\n\nObliques are marked by postpositions: locative ta , allative un (for inanimatre\nGoal) and dative e-un <head-ALL> (for animate Goal), ablative wa , instrumental\nani, comitative tura/turano, traversal peka (\u2018over\u2019), mutative ne (\u2018as\u2019; <ne\nCOP). Most case postpositions not only clearly originate in verbs but are still\nin a very early stage of the grammaticalization as they can often occur without\nrespective nouns, as in (a).\n\na. itanki huraye hine (itanki) ani i=ko-i-puniA genetic isolate, Ainu shows considerable dialectal variation: Hokkaido\n(Northeastern and Southwestern), Sakhalin, and Kurile groups. Ainu is\nagglutinating, polysynthetic and incorporating, with SV/AOV constituent order.\nIt is predominantly head-marking. Personal pronouns in the subject (A/S) and\nobject (O) position are often omitted: Ainu is a so-called pro-drop language but\nverbal cross-referencing markers are obligatory.
\nSome verbs employ different stems for singular and plural. In the case of\nintransitive verbs, plurality refers to the number of S referents, while in the\ncase of transitive verbs plurality refers to the number of O or patientive\nA referents.
\nArguments do not inflect for case in Ainu: A and O are distinguished by their\nrelative position in clause structure and by verbal cross-referencing markers.
\nObliques are marked by postpositions: locative ta , allative un (for inanimatre\nGoal) and dative e-un <head-ALL> (for animate Goal), ablative wa , instrumental\nani, comitative tura/turano, traversal peka (\u2018over\u2019), mutative ne (\u2018as\u2019; <ne\nCOP). Most case postpositions not only clearly originate in verbs but are still\nin a very early stage of the grammaticalization as they can often occur without\nrespective nouns, as in (a).
\na. itanki huraye hine (itanki) ani i=ko-i-puni
\nbowl wash and bowl INST INDF.O=to.APPL-APASS-raise
\n\u2018She washed a bowl and with (that bowl) he served me food.\u2019 Ani (INST) ( < ani 'hold sth') may also be interpreted as lit. \u2018holding (that bowl)' - zero-anaphora. However, if ani were still a verb here we would need a coordinating conjunction after ani, so it really has an intermediate status between a verb and postposition.
The system of grammatical relations in Ainu shows mixed alignment. There is\na tripartite alignment (distinct marking for S, A, and O) in 1PL pronominal\nverbal marking, viz. the prefix ci= marks A, the suffix =as S, and un= O for the\nfirst person exclusive, and a= A, =an S, and i= O for indefinite person.\nIndefinite is not only used to refer to the indefinite speaker or addressee, but\nalso as the first person plural inclusive, second person singular/plural\nhonorific, and logophoric (person of the protagonist). The latter is common in\nfolktales because they have the structure of reported discourse with the whole\nstory being a quote; for convenience the logophoric is translated as \u2018I\u2019 but is\nglossed as IND. There are elements of a neutral system in the second and third\nperson pronominal verbal marking, viz. A, S, and O are marked by e= in 2SG and\nby eci= in 2PL, and the third person is always zero-marked; independent personal\npronouns are the same for A, S, and O in all persons. There is also one feature\nof a nominative/accusative system: A=S, and O are distinct in the 1SG pronominal\nverbal marking, viz. 1SG ku= marks A, S, and en= O
\nIn pronominal verbal marking of transitive verbs, A affixes are, in most cases,\nplaced before O markers. However, when it comes to the interaction of first and\nsecond person participants, person marking on verbs is not always analyzable as\nARGa-ARGo-VERB, and it is, indeed, subject to considerable dialectal variation.
\nThe A set of prefixes is also employed in the inalienable possessive\nconstruction, where they are attached to the head noun (possessee) to mark the\nperson and number of the possessor. The head noun is additionally marked with\nthe allomorphic possessive suffixes -V or -(V)hV which copy a root-final vowel\nonce or twice with the epenthetic /h/ being inserted, viz. -ha/-hu/-ho/-he/-hi\nfor vowel-final roots, as in ku=sapa-ha (1SG.A=head-POSS) \u2018my head\u2019, and\n-a(ha)/-u(hu)/-o(ho)/-e(he)/-i(hi) for consonant-final roots, as in ci=setur-u\nor ci=setur-uhu (1PL.(EXC).A=back-POSS) \u2018our backs\u2019 . Relational nouns as heads\ndiffer from common nouns in that they employ the O set of prefixes to mark the\nperson and number of the possessor, viz. en=sam (1SG.O=near) \u2018near me\u2019.\nPossessive suffixes are attached to relational nouns only if the possessor is\n3SG/PL (zero-marked), viz. \u00d8=sam-a (3.O=near-POSS) \u2018near him/her/it\u2019.
\nAlienable possession is encoded by the relative clause-based periphrastic\nconstruction with the verb kor \u2018have sth/sb\u2019 as the predicate and the possessor\nas the subject; the head noun (possessee) is left unmarked: ku=\u00d8=kor kamuy\n[1SG.\u0410=3.O=have god] \u2018my god\u2019 (lit. \u2018the god (that) I have\u2019).
\nSV/AOV constituent order.
\nIn double object construction, generally A-R-T-V, but there are also other ordering options, they are pragmatically motivated.
Attributives are prepositive.
\nSubordinate clauses always precede main clauses.
\nIs based on previous documentation of Ainu which had been undertaken by the\ncontributor or other researchers of Ainu. Data from existing Ainu dictionaries\nand published texts have been used extensively, as well as those that are in the\nprocess of preparation for a publication (see forthcoming). For most examples,\nthere exist respective audio materials.
\nThe contributor, Anna Bugaeva, has been working on Ainu since 1997 after her\ngraduation from Department of Japanese (St. Petersburg University) in 1996. She\nwas supervised by an Ainu specialist Tomomi Satoo in her PhD (obtained in 2004\nfrom Hokkaido University) and by an Ainu specialist Hiroshi Nakagawa in her two\npost-docs (Chiba University). Currently, she works as an assistant professor at\nWaseda Institute for Advanced Study, Waseda University.
", "latitude": 43.0, "longitude": 143.0}, "name": "Ainu (Southern Hokkaido)"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [143.0, 43.0]}, "id": "ainu1240"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 3059, "basic_codingframe_pk": 1078, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Unknown", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2526-be-sad-1", "name": "kanasi:", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2696, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2696, "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2526-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 24, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 24, "source": null}}, {"pk": 3060, "basic_codingframe_pk": 1078, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Unknown", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2526-be-sad-2", "name": "kanasim-u", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 2696, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 2696, "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2526-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 24, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 24, "source": null}}], "label": "kanasi:, kanasim-u", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I0NDQ0NDQztzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 24, "glottocode": "east2526", "family_pk": 9, "jsondata": {}, "id": "east2526", "name": "Mitsukaido Japanese", "description": "#### General comment\n\nBrief description of the Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese\n\nThe Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese is spoken in the area around the former\nMitsukaido city (now incorporated into Joso city). This area is 50km north to\nTokyo, the capital of Japan. In spite of its close location to the economic and\ncultural center of Japan, the dialect spoken in this area displays phonological\nand morphosyntactic characteristics different from Standard Japanese.\n\nThis dialect is classified as one of the eastern varieties of Japanese dialect.\nAs mentioned below, this dialect shows Tohoku-like characteristics and\nKanto-like characteristics simultaneously in both phonology and morphosyntax.\nThis Janus-faced characteristic is a reflection of the geographical situation,\ni.e., the southern edge of Tohoku dialects.\n\nThe population of Joso city is 64,880 (August 16th, 2011). Due to its low inflow\nof population, most of the population can be regarded as a speaker of the\nMitsukaido dialect. The old generation preserves the classic type of grammatical\ntraits, while the speech of the younger generation undergoes influence from\nStandard Japanese. Sasaki (2011) illustrates that the loss of dialectal features\nin younger generation is overwhelming but not complete.\n\nThis dialect has no written tradition, but some sentences reflecting the\ngrammatical traits of this dialect are found in the modern Japanese literature.\nThe most well-known case is the conversational part of the novel Tsuchi 'The\nEarth' written by Takashi Nagatsuka in 1910.\n\nThe data used in this article is obtained from speakers aged over 80 and these\ndata reflect traditional features.\n\nThe phonemic inventory of this dialect is the same as that of Standard Japanese.\nThis dialect has five vowel phonemes /i, e, a, o, u/ and 11 consonant phonemes\n/p, t, k, b, d, g, n, m, r, w, j/. The dialect lacks lexical accent.\n\nDespite of its phonemic affinity with Standard Japanese, the surface phonetic\nrealization of cognate words is different from that of Standard Japanese because\nof the phonological processes not found in Standard Japanese: 'breath' is [iki]\nin SJ and [egi] in MD; 'square floor cushion' is [dzabutoN] in SJ and [dzaptoN]\nin MD. Most of the phonological processes responsible for the surface difference\nare those also found in Tohoku dialects, for example, intervocalic voicing of\nstops, regressive devoicing of /z/ and /b/, lowering of /i/ without onset, and\nso on. The phonological processes interact in a complex manner. Some\ninteractions exhibit multiple opaque interactions. For the details of the\ninteraction of phonological processes, see Sasaki (2008a). In order to avoid\nconfusion, I adopt systematic allophones, i.e., the output of the phonological\nprocesses, as notation in this database ([ng] stands for velar nasal).\n\nConcerning the morphology relating to valency alternation, both affinity and\ndifference are found between the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese. The\nvoice system of the Mitsukaido dialect is almost the same as that of Standard\nJapanese, i.e., both the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese have\nproductive passive, causative and potential formation, but lack productive\nanticausativization widely attested in the Tohoku dialects, though the\nphonological shape of the morphemes is not completely the same: the passive and\nthe potential suffixes are identical to those of Standard Japanese, namely\npassive /rare/ and potential /e/ and /rare/, while the causative suffix is\n/sase/ in Standard Japanese but /rase/ in the Mitsukaido dialect.\n\nThe difference between the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese is most\nprominent with respect to the case system. The case alignment of subject and\ndirect object in the Mitsukaido dialect is accusative type, as in Standard\nJapanese. However, the morphological shapes of nominative and accusative are\ndifferent. Nominative is expressed by zero-marking (in Standard Japanese, the\ncase particle -ga is used). Accusative case form is different depending on the\nanimacy of the host nominal: inanimate direct objects are zero-marked while\nanimate direct objects are case marked with the particle -godo. This type of\nunmarked nominative and marked accusative system is widely attested in Tohoku\ndialects (some of them employ -godo as an accusative marker). Due to having two\ntypes of accusative case marking, the Mitsukaido dialect has an uncoded valency\nalternation which is not found in Standard Japanese, namely double accusative\npossessor ascension and (unproductive) double accusative type dative\nalternation. For the details of double accusative constructions, see Sasaki\n(2002).\n\nAnother feature distinguishing the Mitsukaido dialect case system from that of\nStandard Japanese is the degree of elaboratedness of the oblique case particles.\nThe Mitsukaido dialect is more elaborated than Standard Japanese. The semantic\nsphere of the Standard Japanese dative/locative -ni is divided among four case\nparticles in the Mitsukaido dialect, i.e., locative -ni, dative -nge/-sa (-nge\nis used for animate goal and -sa is used for inanimate goal), and experiencer\ncase -ngani. The main usage of the experiencer case particle -ngani is a marker\nfor an experiencer oblique subject. The oblique case specific to experiencer is\nconsidered to be typologically rare. See Sasaki (2004) and Sasaki (2008b) for\ndetails.\n\nThe elaboratedness of the adnominal case particles is also characteristic to\nthis dialect. The Mitsukaido dialect has three adnominal case particles:\npossessive -nga, genitive -no, and adnominal locative -na. For details on the\nusage of these case particles, see Sasaki (1997) and Sasaki & Caluianu (1997).\n\n * Sasaki, Kan (1997) Possessive, Genitive and Adnominal Locative in the Mitsukaido Dialect. In: Tooru Hayashi & Peri Bhaskararao (eds.), Studies in Possessive Expressions. 117-141. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa.\n * Sasaki, Kan and Daniela Caluianu (1997) Mitsukaidoo hoogen no rentaishuushoku kaku [Adnominal case particles in the Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese]. Gengo Kenkyu 111. 59-83.\n * Sasaki, Kan (2002) The double accusative possessor ascension construction in the Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese. In: Tasaku Tsunoda (ed.), Basic Materials in Minority Languages 2002. (ELPR Publications Series B003) 91-114.\n * Sasaki, Kan (2004) Mitsukaidoo Hoogen ni okeru Kaku to Bunpookankei [Case and Grammatical Relations in the Mitsukaido Dialect of Japanese]. Tokyo: Kurosio Publishers.\n * Sasaki, Kan (2008a) Hardening alternation in the Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese. Gengo Kenkyu 134. 85-117.\n * Sasaki, Kan (2008b) What can the Mitsukaido dialect case system tell about syntactic theory? Journal of General Linguistics 11. 53-84\n * Sasaki, Kan (2011) Mitsukaidoo hoogen: hyoojungo ni chikai noni tooi hoogen [The Mitsukaido dialect: a dialect that is both close to and far from Standard Japanese]. In: Megumi Kurebito (ed.), Nihon no Kikigengo [Endangered Languages in Japan]. 101-138. Sapporo: Hokkaido University Press.", "markup_description": "Brief description of the Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese
\nThe Mitsukaido dialect of Japanese is spoken in the area around the former\nMitsukaido city (now incorporated into Joso city). This area is 50km north to\nTokyo, the capital of Japan. In spite of its close location to the economic and\ncultural center of Japan, the dialect spoken in this area displays phonological\nand morphosyntactic characteristics different from Standard Japanese.
\nThis dialect is classified as one of the eastern varieties of Japanese dialect.\nAs mentioned below, this dialect shows Tohoku-like characteristics and\nKanto-like characteristics simultaneously in both phonology and morphosyntax.\nThis Janus-faced characteristic is a reflection of the geographical situation,\ni.e., the southern edge of Tohoku dialects.
\nThe population of Joso city is 64,880 (August 16th, 2011). Due to its low inflow\nof population, most of the population can be regarded as a speaker of the\nMitsukaido dialect. The old generation preserves the classic type of grammatical\ntraits, while the speech of the younger generation undergoes influence from\nStandard Japanese. Sasaki (2011) illustrates that the loss of dialectal features\nin younger generation is overwhelming but not complete.
\nThis dialect has no written tradition, but some sentences reflecting the\ngrammatical traits of this dialect are found in the modern Japanese literature.\nThe most well-known case is the conversational part of the novel Tsuchi 'The\nEarth' written by Takashi Nagatsuka in 1910.
\nThe data used in this article is obtained from speakers aged over 80 and these\ndata reflect traditional features.
\nThe phonemic inventory of this dialect is the same as that of Standard Japanese.\nThis dialect has five vowel phonemes /i, e, a, o, u/ and 11 consonant phonemes\n/p, t, k, b, d, g, n, m, r, w, j/. The dialect lacks lexical accent.
\nDespite of its phonemic affinity with Standard Japanese, the surface phonetic\nrealization of cognate words is different from that of Standard Japanese because\nof the phonological processes not found in Standard Japanese: 'breath' is [iki]\nin SJ and [egi] in MD; 'square floor cushion' is [dzabutoN] in SJ and [dzaptoN]\nin MD. Most of the phonological processes responsible for the surface difference\nare those also found in Tohoku dialects, for example, intervocalic voicing of\nstops, regressive devoicing of /z/ and /b/, lowering of /i/ without onset, and\nso on. The phonological processes interact in a complex manner. Some\ninteractions exhibit multiple opaque interactions. For the details of the\ninteraction of phonological processes, see Sasaki (2008a). In order to avoid\nconfusion, I adopt systematic allophones, i.e., the output of the phonological\nprocesses, as notation in this database ([ng] stands for velar nasal).
\nConcerning the morphology relating to valency alternation, both affinity and\ndifference are found between the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese. The\nvoice system of the Mitsukaido dialect is almost the same as that of Standard\nJapanese, i.e., both the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese have\nproductive passive, causative and potential formation, but lack productive\nanticausativization widely attested in the Tohoku dialects, though the\nphonological shape of the morphemes is not completely the same: the passive and\nthe potential suffixes are identical to those of Standard Japanese, namely\npassive /rare/ and potential /e/ and /rare/, while the causative suffix is\n/sase/ in Standard Japanese but /rase/ in the Mitsukaido dialect.
\nThe difference between the Mitsukaido dialect and Standard Japanese is most\nprominent with respect to the case system. The case alignment of subject and\ndirect object in the Mitsukaido dialect is accusative type, as in Standard\nJapanese. However, the morphological shapes of nominative and accusative are\ndifferent. Nominative is expressed by zero-marking (in Standard Japanese, the\ncase particle -ga is used). Accusative case form is different depending on the\nanimacy of the host nominal: inanimate direct objects are zero-marked while\nanimate direct objects are case marked with the particle -godo. This type of\nunmarked nominative and marked accusative system is widely attested in Tohoku\ndialects (some of them employ -godo as an accusative marker). Due to having two\ntypes of accusative case marking, the Mitsukaido dialect has an uncoded valency\nalternation which is not found in Standard Japanese, namely double accusative\npossessor ascension and (unproductive) double accusative type dative\nalternation. For the details of double accusative constructions, see Sasaki\n(2002).
\nAnother feature distinguishing the Mitsukaido dialect case system from that of\nStandard Japanese is the degree of elaboratedness of the oblique case particles.\nThe Mitsukaido dialect is more elaborated than Standard Japanese. The semantic\nsphere of the Standard Japanese dative/locative -ni is divided among four case\nparticles in the Mitsukaido dialect, i.e., locative -ni, dative -nge/-sa (-nge\nis used for animate goal and -sa is used for inanimate goal), and experiencer\ncase -ngani. The main usage of the experiencer case particle -ngani is a marker\nfor an experiencer oblique subject. The oblique case specific to experiencer is\nconsidered to be typologically rare. See Sasaki (2004) and Sasaki (2008b) for\ndetails.
\nThe elaboratedness of the adnominal case particles is also characteristic to\nthis dialect. The Mitsukaido dialect has three adnominal case particles:\npossessive -nga, genitive -no, and adnominal locative -na. For details on the\nusage of these case particles, see Sasaki (1997) and Sasaki & Caluianu (1997).
\nModern Persian belongs to the Western Iranian branch of the Indo-Iranian group of the Indo-European language family. It is a descendent of the Middle Persian, the official language of the Sasanian Empire (third century BCE-seventh century CE) and Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenid Empire (sixth-fourth century BCE). Early Modern Persian inherited both the writing system and much vocabulary from Arabic. Persian has a couple of varieties and the one spoken in Iran is called Farsi and is spoken as a native language by the majority of the 90 million population in Iran where it enjoys the status of an official or state language and is also widely used as a language of communication, education, and commerce by non-native speakers.
\nFarsi exploits both flagging (case or adpositional marking) and/or indexing (agreement, bound person marking associated with the verb) for distinguishing relations in the clause. This language is a nominative-accusative language. Arguments and adjuncts are almost exclusively coded by adpositions, which are used to express case relations. Farsi is a pro-drop language, in which not only a subject may be dropped, but also a direct object pronoun. Beside the full pronouns, there is a series of pronominal clitics. The pronoun clitics may be suffixed to verbs, prepositions and nouns, and serve the same grammatical functions as the full pronouns, with the exception of sentence subject. Farsi nouns distinguish number and definiteness, but there is no morphological case system, nor a distinction of animacy or gender. The NP bare noun is generally neutral with respect to definiteness and number; e.g. ket\u0101b may mean \u2018book, a book, the book, books\u2019. One of the specific features of Farsi syntax are the ez\u0101fe constructions. Ez\u0101fe, from Arabic i\u1e0d\u0101fa \u2018addition, adjunction\u2019, designates an enclitic realized as =(y)e, which occurs within the noun phrase and links the head noun to its modifiers and to the possessor NP.
\nIndexing is also used for distinguishing relations in the clause. The verbs agree with the subject in number and person. Verbs are marked for tense and aspect and are either simple or compound. Certain simple verbs (e.g. zadan \u2018strike\u2019) can combine with nouns or adjectives or prepositions or preverbs (e.g. \u1e25arf \u2018letter, speech\u2019) to form \u201clight verb constructions\u201d or \u201ccomplex predicates\u201d which are very widespread in this language and correspond to simple verbs in many other languages (\u1e25arf zadan \u2018speak\u2019, lit. \u2018to strike a word/speech\u2019). The light verb takes all the inflectional and derivational affixes and the non-verbal element (NVE) that usually precedes it, may be a noun, an adjective, a preposition, or a preverb. There is a large and increasing number of verbal constructions in colloquial Farsi formed with a third person singular form of the verb and an experiencer, often a personal clitic. These constructions express physical and psychological processes.
\nThe canonical word order is subject-object-verb (SOV). The surface word order pattern is strongly head-initial within the NP. Farsi has a large set of prepositions though the object marker is a postposition, or clitic, =r\u0101 (or coll. =ro, =o) which marks predominantly definite direct objects, and it has post-nominal adjectives, genitives, and relative clauses, features generally associated with the head-initial languages. Yet the verb occurs in the final position of the clause, in particular in written and formal registers.
\nData were gathered in 2024-2025 for the 80 core meanings in PaVeDa. Counterparts were selected based on the frequency. The examples in the database are taken from contemporary written sources gathered in the Leipzig Corpora Collection. The Leipzig corpora in Farsi is available as plain text files and contains selected sentences from 10,000 sentences up to 1 million sentences. The sources are either newspaper texts or texts randomly collected from the web during 2010-2020.
\nRaheleh Izadifar has collected the data. She is PhD graduate of General Linguistics from BuAli Sina University, Iran, and is a lecturer at the same university. Prof. Omid Tabibzadeh, the supervisor of the data and the paper, is professor of General Linguistics at the Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies, Iran.
", "latitude": 32.9, "longitude": 53.3}, "name": "Western Farsi"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [53.3, 32.9]}, "id": "west2369"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 3684, "basic_codingframe_pk": 1386, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "goth1244-be-sad-1", "name": "gaurs wair\u00fean ", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 3213, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 3213, "jsondata": {}, "id": "goth1244-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 38, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 38, "source": null}}], "label": "gaurs wair\u00fean ", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 38, "glottocode": "goth1244", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "goth1244", "name": "Gothic", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 46.96, "longitude": 29.84}, "name": "Gothic"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [29.84, 46.96]}, "id": "goth1244"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 3772, "basic_codingframe_pk": 1504, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "Data for this verb has been integrated with MED dictionary (https://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/dictionary/MED12725/track?counter=1&search_id=72497576).", "jsondata": {}, "id": "midd1317-be-sad-1", "name": "dr\u01d2upnen", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 3288, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 3288, "jsondata": {}, "id": "midd1317-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 39, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 39, "source": null}}], "label": "dr\u01d2upnen", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 39, "glottocode": "midd1317", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "midd1317", "name": "Middle English", "description": "#### General comment\n\nThe Norman Conquest of England in 1066 conventionally marks the end of the Old English period and the beginning of Middle English. The literature produced in England during the Middle English period closely mirrors the shifting prominence of the English language. When French was the dominant language among the upper classes, their reading and listening materials were predominantly in French. The separation between the English nobility and France became more evident around 1250, leading to a broader adoption of English among the upper classes. This shift is reflected in the English literature of the following century, where genres that were previously written in French began to appear in English. Among these genres, the romance was the most popular. The widespread adoption of English by all social classes, which occurred by the latter half of the fourteenth century, led to a flourishing of English literature, marking a peak in medieval English literary achievements. The Middle English period conventionally ends at the beginnings of the XV century. Differently from Old English, for which we see scarce diachronic evolution across the centuries, Middle English is \u201ca period of great change\u201d (Baugh & Cable 2013: 152) and this change affected the English language in its phonology, morphosyntax and vocabulary\n\nThe coding frames given here include all arguments/adjuncts of the pre-defined role frame, plus a few additional ones that were found regularly in the sources.\n\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nMiddle English is characterised by a gradual decay of inflectional paradigms: except for the genitive, case marking is found only in pronominal forms, where a nominative form is distinguished from a non-nominative form (indicated with -acc in the database), in which forms of the accusative and dative have merged. The masculine/neuter -es genitive has been extended also to the feminine and is the only case found also in nominal inflection.\n\nDue to case loss (syncretism of non-nominative forms in the pronominal inflection), ditransitives adhere to the neutral alignment.\n\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nThe grammatical categories of the Old English verbal system, i.e. person, number, tense and mood, were substantially retained in Middle English, though many inflectional endings were lost. As in Old English, however, there is still agreement between subject and verb in number and person (Smith 2023: 91), even though many forms show syncretism.\n\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nProbably connected to the loss of inflections, word order patterns became less flexible during the Middle English period, the usual order being SVO. However, this order could change for stylistic reasons (Smith 2022: 95). Middle English still exhibits V2 in many texts, although this phenomenon is frequently disregarded in others (Fulk 2012: 111).\n\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nData were collected in the 2023 for the 80 core meanings in ValPaL, from a subset of the [PPCME2 (Kroch & Taylor 2000)](https://www.ling.upenn.edu/histcorpora/PPCME2-RELEASE-4/index.html) and [PCMEP (Zimmermann 2014)](https://pcmep.net/) treebanks. The list of texts selected as sample can be found at the following link: [https://drive.google.com/file/d/1kGDLULwAoNdWDUwQ_8YeN7qZq47_-GT9/view?usp=sharing](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1kGDLULwAoNdWDUwQ_8YeN7qZq47_-GT9/view?usp=sharing).\n\nCounterparts to verb meanings were selected searching the electronic [Middle English Dictionary](https://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/dictionary). Occasionally, examples were taken from other texts in the treebanks or from the above-mentioned dictionaries when occurrences were missing in corpus samples but the patterns were attested elsewhere. \n\nThe contributor, Martina Giarda, is a PhD Student in Linguistic Sciences at the University of Pavia and the University of Bergamo.", "markup_description": "The Norman Conquest of England in 1066 conventionally marks the end of the Old English period and the beginning of Middle English. The literature produced in England during the Middle English period closely mirrors the shifting prominence of the English language. When French was the dominant language among the upper classes, their reading and listening materials were predominantly in French. The separation between the English nobility and France became more evident around 1250, leading to a broader adoption of English among the upper classes. This shift is reflected in the English literature of the following century, where genres that were previously written in French began to appear in English. Among these genres, the romance was the most popular. The widespread adoption of English by all social classes, which occurred by the latter half of the fourteenth century, led to a flourishing of English literature, marking a peak in medieval English literary achievements. The Middle English period conventionally ends at the beginnings of the XV century. Differently from Old English, for which we see scarce diachronic evolution across the centuries, Middle English is \u201ca period of great change\u201d (Baugh & Cable 2013: 152) and this change affected the English language in its phonology, morphosyntax and vocabulary
\nThe coding frames given here include all arguments/adjuncts of the pre-defined role frame, plus a few additional ones that were found regularly in the sources.
\nMiddle English is characterised by a gradual decay of inflectional paradigms: except for the genitive, case marking is found only in pronominal forms, where a nominative form is distinguished from a non-nominative form (indicated with -acc in the database), in which forms of the accusative and dative have merged. The masculine/neuter -es genitive has been extended also to the feminine and is the only case found also in nominal inflection.
\nDue to case loss (syncretism of non-nominative forms in the pronominal inflection), ditransitives adhere to the neutral alignment.
\nThe grammatical categories of the Old English verbal system, i.e. person, number, tense and mood, were substantially retained in Middle English, though many inflectional endings were lost. As in Old English, however, there is still agreement between subject and verb in number and person (Smith 2023: 91), even though many forms show syncretism.
\nProbably connected to the loss of inflections, word order patterns became less flexible during the Middle English period, the usual order being SVO. However, this order could change for stylistic reasons (Smith 2022: 95). Middle English still exhibits V2 in many texts, although this phenomenon is frequently disregarded in others (Fulk 2012: 111).
\nData were collected in the 2023 for the 80 core meanings in ValPaL, from a subset of the PPCME2 (Kroch & Taylor 2000) and PCMEP (Zimmermann 2014) treebanks. The list of texts selected as sample can be found at the following link: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1kGDLULwAoNdWDUwQ_8YeN7qZq47_-GT9/view?usp=sharing.
\nCounterparts to verb meanings were selected searching the electronic Middle English Dictionary. Occasionally, examples were taken from other texts in the treebanks or from the above-mentioned dictionaries when occurrences were missing in corpus samples but the patterns were attested elsewhere.
\nThe contributor, Martina Giarda, is a PhD Student in Linguistic Sciences at the University of Pavia and the University of Bergamo.
", "latitude": 51.39, "longitude": -1.07}, "name": "Middle English"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [-1.07, 51.39]}, "id": "midd1317"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 3861, "basic_codingframe_pk": 1663, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "complex predicate with the verb to be (substantive verb) and a subject noun br\u00f3n meaning sadness", "jsondata": {}, "id": "iris1253-be-sad-1", "name": "b\u00ed br\u00f3n", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 3370, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 3370, "jsondata": {}, "id": "iris1253-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 40, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 40, "source": null}}], "label": "b\u00ed br\u00f3n", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 40, "glottocode": "iris1253", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "iris1253", "name": "Irish", "description": "#### General comment\n\n\u201cModern Irish\u201d is a cover-term for several Celtic dialects belonging to the Goidelic branch\u2013 including the standardised variety Caighde\u00e1n Oifigi\u00fail (\u201cOfficial Standard\u201d)\u2013, spoken nowadays as inherited languages in the non-continuous Gaeltacht areas of Ireland, and as learned varieties throughout the Island.\n\nModern Irish varieties have nominative-accusative alignment and preserve two cases. Nominal case-marking, however, opposes an all-purpose unmarked case, used for A/S/P and and after prepositions, to an adnominal genitive case also used for arguments of non-finite forms. Pronominal arguments, on the other hand, partially preserve a distinction between nominative (A/S with active forms) and accusative (P, and S with passive and copular forms) and residual verbal indexing of A/S (see relevant sections below). Therefore, the label \u201cnominative\u201d has been used in the coding frames for A/S subjects of active forms, although this sort of marginal case-marking always combines with word-order coding.\n\nThe coding frames given here include all arguments or adjuncts of the pre-defined role frame, plus a few additional ones that were found regularly in the sources. The database includes as coded alternations passive and various non-finite constructions, plus a plethora of uncoded alternations (such as, e.g., reflexive, oblipatient, reciprocal). Each alternation is included for a verb meaning if it is attested for that counterpart verb in one of the two major corpora (see below Source of the data).\n\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nThe major resources for argument/adjunct identification are word order and prepositions. Although case-marking applies regularly to all noun phrases, the two case-forms are an adverbal/adpositional form (that follows verbs and prepositions) and an adnominal, genitive form that follows nominal heads. Therefore, case-marking is not the main device to flag A/S/P arguments with finite forms.\n\nOnly a few case-marked pronominal forms distinguish A/S vs. P, namely 2SG _t\u00fa_ vs. _th\u00fa_, 3SG masculine _s\u00e9_ vs. _\u00e9_, feminine _s\u00ed_ vs. _\u00ed_, 3PL _siad_ vs. _iad_. On the other hand, depending on dialect, first persons better preserve A/S indexes with active verbal forms, which usually alternate with independent subject pronouns after non-personal forms, e.g. _t\u00e1im_ and _t\u00e1 m\u00e9_ \u2018I am\u2019, _chuireas_ and _chuir m\u00e9_ \u2018I put (PST)\u2019 (but not _\\*t\u00e1im m\u00e9_ or _chuireas m\u00e9_ with both person index and independent subject pronoun). Unmarked word order is VSOX and A/S arguments regularly follow the verb and precede P and prepositional arguments.\n\nThe genitive case is used to flag either P or, more rarely, A/S with non-finite forms. Given widespread homophony of forms in some inflectional classes, case-distinctions are more easily overt with definite noun phrases, due to the different initial consonant mutations triggered by the definite article, e.g. _tithe_ \u2018houses\u2019 (unmarked or genitive case), but _na tithe_ \u2018the houses\u2019 (unmarked case) vs. _na dtithe_ with initial /d/ \u2018of the houses\u2019 (genitive case). Note that while nominal genitives always follow their syntactic head, pronominal genitives (possessives) are proclitic to their nominal heads, on which they trigger initial consonant mutations. Since this is a general paradigmatic rule and exceptionless, the two strategies have been considered the same for the sake of coding frames.\n\nPrepositions trigger initial consonant mutations on a following indefinite noun, while a following definite article may fuse with the preposition but is not affected by the same mutation as nouns, and triggers its own mutation on the following noun depending on case, e.g. _do dhaoine_ with initial /\u0263/ \u2018to people\u2019, _do na daoine_ with initial /d/ \u2018to the people\u2019. Most prepositions are followed by the unmarked case, but a few prepositions which have nominal origin require the genitive case, e.g. _chun_ \u2018towards\u2019. The prepositions most frequently used to flag arguments are: the superessive and malefactive preposition _ar_ \u2018on\u2019, which is also used for experiencers with some predicates; the instrumental, comitative and adessive preposition _le_ \u2018with, by\u2019; the locative and allative preposition _i_ \u2018in, into\u2019; the datival preposition _do_ \u2018to\u2019 (regularly used for recipients but sometimes also to flag A/S in non-finite constructions). Less frequent ones are: the ablative prepositions _as_ and _\u00f3_; the locative and agentive preposition _ag_ \u2018by\u2019, which also flags some experiencers; the locative (and temporal) preposition _roimh_ \u2018before\u2019 which may flag stimuli; and the subessive preposition _faoi_ \u2018under, about\u2019. Note that pronominal complements of prepositions are obligatorily expressed as indexes as in Old Irish; only a few prepositions have lost pronominal inflection (see below Characterization of indexing resources).\n\nDitransitives usually adhere to the indirective alignment.\n\nReflexive and reciprocal constructions resort to the addition of independent lexical means, namely _f\u00e9in_ added to a pronominal direct or prepositional object for reflexives and _(a) ch\u00e9ile_, on its own or preceded by a preposition, for reciprocals.\n\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nWhile Old Irish was radically pro-drop (no pronominal argument could be overt except as an index), Modern Irish requires A/S independent subject pronouns, and in some dialects, including the standard variety, even expletives (for example see RAIN, but also examples 46, 398). This holds with the exception of a few relic 1st, 2nd and 3rd plural person-inflected forms, as mentioned above (see e.g. example 143). No trace of object indexing is on the other hand preserved in Modern Irish varieties. Pronominal objects and the pronominal S arguments of passive and copular forms tend to be displaced in clause-final position (VSXO, VXS).\n\nRelativized A/S/P arguments, whose syntactic function in the relative clause is coded through a distinct relative particle and a specific initial mutation on the verb, are considered the same as non-relativized ones.\n\nPassive forms, termed autonomous forms in grammars, qualify as desubjectives, since pronominal S arguments surface as object forms, i.e. they are coded the same as P. With transitive and intransitive verbs, passive forms may behave as impersonals, i.e. the A or S argument is suppressed, interpreted as non-referential indefinite, and only prepositional arguments are overt.\n\nPrepositions inflect for person, i.e., pronominal dependents of prepositions are obligatorily fused with them (head-marking), e.g. to Conall = _do Chonall_, to him = _d\u00f3_ or _dh\u00f3_, to me = _dom_ or _dhom_, to you (sg.) = _duit_ or _dhuit_. Cross-reference of nominal objects of prepositions is generally prohibited, although a few prepositions adopt the 3SG masculine inflected form before definite noun phrases, e.g. _le duine_ \u2018with a person\u2019, _leis an duine_ \u2018with the person\u2019, cf. _leis_ \u2018with him\u2019.\n\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nWord order is the main device that keeps A/S and P apart, through VSO order, in particular with nominals, since there is no nominative/accusative case distinction. As mentioned above, pronominal objects and the pronominal S arguments of passive and copular forms, whether they have different case-forms for A/S and P or not, tend to be displaced in clause-final position (VSXO, VXS).\n\nArguments may be fronted for pragmatic reasons, mostly in left dislocations (with resumption through a pronominal form) or clefting, which, broadly speaking, are topicalising and focusing constructions respectively.\n\nDifferent word orders occur with non-finite verbal forms; they may be grouped into two main constructions (VS/O vs. S/O do V):\n\n* non-finite verbal forms (verbal nouns) are followed by a genitive argument (which is generally the P argument with transitive verbs); the S or A argument, if it is not in the genitive case, is either controlled or follows both the verb and the genitive noun, flagged with the preposition _do_ or _ag_: i.e., he was bringing a treasure = he was at bringing (of) treasure; it is good that he brings a treasure = (it) is good bringing (of) treasure by him.\n* non-finite verbal forms (verbal nouns) are governed by the preposition do and preceded by one of the two direct arguments, usually P, which appears in the case-form required by the matrix verb (raising): e.g. he set out to bring a treasure = he set out (a) treasure to bring; it is good that he brings a treasure = (it) is good (a) treasure to bring by (lit. to) him.\n\nStrictly speaking, only in the second construction is word order the crucial element for argument identification. The two main non finite-constructions have been labelled as follows: the first one as verbal noun/infinitive and the second one as verbal noun with preposed argument/infinitive 2.\n\nAs note above, while nominal genitives always follow their syntactic head, pronominal genitives (possessives) are proclitic to their nominal heads, on which they trigger initial consonant mutations.\n\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nData were collected in 2025 for the 80 core meanings in ValPaL, plus a few additional ones that correspond to the Old Irish added meanings. Counterparts were selected generally among the ones suggested in the [New Irish-English dictionary](https://www.focloir.ie/en/), relying on the [Corpas N\u00e1isi\u00fanta na Gaeilge](https://www.corpas.ie) (CNG: Bhreathnach, \u00da., M\u011bchura, M., \u00d3 Cleirc\u00edn, G., \u00d3 Meachair, M., \u00d3 Raghallaigh, B., Scannell, K. & U\u00ed Dhonnchadha, E., Corpas N\u00e1isi\u00fanta na Gaeilge \u2013 National Corpus of Irish. Dublin City University, 2024) and on the dialect repository [Taisce Chan\u00faint\u00ed na Gaeilge](https://www.canuint.ie/) (Palandri, A., Bhreathnach, \u00da., M\u011bchura, M., \u00d3 Cleirc\u00edn, G. & \u00d3 Raghallaigh, B., Taisce Chan\u00faint\u00ed na Gaeilge - Repository of Irish Dialects. Dublin City University, 2025), which have both been sources for the examples. The Corpas N\u00e1isi\u00fanta na Gaeilge is a broadly lemmatised collection of both written and spoken texts (reported in standard spelling), which span the period 2000-2024. It is a balanced corpus of 100 million words, with written sources however largely prevailing. The repository Taisce Chan\u00faint\u00ed na Gaeilge is on the other hand an audio archive, a collection of spoken texts recorded between the 1940s and 1990s in various Irish-speaking areas, originally broadcast on Raidi\u00f3 \u00c9ireann and Raidi\u00f3 na Gaeltachta, converted into audio files with accompanying adapted spelling.\n\nExamples in the database are therefore generally taken from contemporary written sources if from CNG, from contemporary spoken sources if from CNG, TG4 (Irish Television Channel) or if otherwise specified in the comments, and from 20th century spoken sources if from Taisce Chan\u00faint\u00ed na Gaeilge. An attempt has been made to identify basic frames relying on mutual agreement of both corpora.\n\nA single example from the Connemara dialect is taken from [Caint Chonamara](https://www.sksk.de/index.php/de/veroeffentlichungen-2/materialien/33-caint-chonamara), a collection of everyday conversations recorded in the Connemara Gaeltacht in 1964, as quoted in the Briathra/Verbs section of the dictionary [Pota Focal](https://www.potafocal.com/fbg/) (Wigger, A., Valency dictionary of Irish Verbs).\n\nThe main contributor, Elisa Roma, is associate professor of General and Celtic Linguistics at the University of Pavia. Andrea Palandri, Comhalta Taighde/ Research Fellow at Fiontar & Scoil na Gaeilge, Ollscoil Chathair Bhaile \u00c1tha Cliath (Dublin City University), has given fundamental input to employ the repository of Irish dialects, and has suggested counterpart choices, examples and emendations.", "markup_description": "\u201cModern Irish\u201d is a cover-term for several Celtic dialects belonging to the Goidelic branch\u2013 including the standardised variety Caighde\u00e1n Oifigi\u00fail (\u201cOfficial Standard\u201d)\u2013, spoken nowadays as inherited languages in the non-continuous Gaeltacht areas of Ireland, and as learned varieties throughout the Island.
\nModern Irish varieties have nominative-accusative alignment and preserve two cases. Nominal case-marking, however, opposes an all-purpose unmarked case, used for A/S/P and and after prepositions, to an adnominal genitive case also used for arguments of non-finite forms. Pronominal arguments, on the other hand, partially preserve a distinction between nominative (A/S with active forms) and accusative (P, and S with passive and copular forms) and residual verbal indexing of A/S (see relevant sections below). Therefore, the label \u201cnominative\u201d has been used in the coding frames for A/S subjects of active forms, although this sort of marginal case-marking always combines with word-order coding.
\nThe coding frames given here include all arguments or adjuncts of the pre-defined role frame, plus a few additional ones that were found regularly in the sources. The database includes as coded alternations passive and various non-finite constructions, plus a plethora of uncoded alternations (such as, e.g., reflexive, oblipatient, reciprocal). Each alternation is included for a verb meaning if it is attested for that counterpart verb in one of the two major corpora (see below Source of the data).
\nThe major resources for argument/adjunct identification are word order and prepositions. Although case-marking applies regularly to all noun phrases, the two case-forms are an adverbal/adpositional form (that follows verbs and prepositions) and an adnominal, genitive form that follows nominal heads. Therefore, case-marking is not the main device to flag A/S/P arguments with finite forms.
\nOnly a few case-marked pronominal forms distinguish A/S vs. P, namely 2SG t\u00fa vs. th\u00fa, 3SG masculine s\u00e9 vs. \u00e9, feminine s\u00ed vs. \u00ed, 3PL siad vs. iad. On the other hand, depending on dialect, first persons better preserve A/S indexes with active verbal forms, which usually alternate with independent subject pronouns after non-personal forms, e.g. t\u00e1im and t\u00e1 m\u00e9 \u2018I am\u2019, chuireas and chuir m\u00e9 \u2018I put (PST)\u2019 (but not *t\u00e1im m\u00e9 or chuireas m\u00e9 with both person index and independent subject pronoun). Unmarked word order is VSOX and A/S arguments regularly follow the verb and precede P and prepositional arguments.
\nThe genitive case is used to flag either P or, more rarely, A/S with non-finite forms. Given widespread homophony of forms in some inflectional classes, case-distinctions are more easily overt with definite noun phrases, due to the different initial consonant mutations triggered by the definite article, e.g. tithe \u2018houses\u2019 (unmarked or genitive case), but na tithe \u2018the houses\u2019 (unmarked case) vs. na dtithe with initial /d/ \u2018of the houses\u2019 (genitive case). Note that while nominal genitives always follow their syntactic head, pronominal genitives (possessives) are proclitic to their nominal heads, on which they trigger initial consonant mutations. Since this is a general paradigmatic rule and exceptionless, the two strategies have been considered the same for the sake of coding frames.
\nPrepositions trigger initial consonant mutations on a following indefinite noun, while a following definite article may fuse with the preposition but is not affected by the same mutation as nouns, and triggers its own mutation on the following noun depending on case, e.g. do dhaoine with initial /\u0263/ \u2018to people\u2019, do na daoine with initial /d/ \u2018to the people\u2019. Most prepositions are followed by the unmarked case, but a few prepositions which have nominal origin require the genitive case, e.g. chun \u2018towards\u2019. The prepositions most frequently used to flag arguments are: the superessive and malefactive preposition ar \u2018on\u2019, which is also used for experiencers with some predicates; the instrumental, comitative and adessive preposition le \u2018with, by\u2019; the locative and allative preposition i \u2018in, into\u2019; the datival preposition do \u2018to\u2019 (regularly used for recipients but sometimes also to flag A/S in non-finite constructions). Less frequent ones are: the ablative prepositions as and \u00f3; the locative and agentive preposition ag \u2018by\u2019, which also flags some experiencers; the locative (and temporal) preposition roimh \u2018before\u2019 which may flag stimuli; and the subessive preposition faoi \u2018under, about\u2019. Note that pronominal complements of prepositions are obligatorily expressed as indexes as in Old Irish; only a few prepositions have lost pronominal inflection (see below Characterization of indexing resources).
\nDitransitives usually adhere to the indirective alignment.
\nReflexive and reciprocal constructions resort to the addition of independent lexical means, namely f\u00e9in added to a pronominal direct or prepositional object for reflexives and (a) ch\u00e9ile, on its own or preceded by a preposition, for reciprocals.
\nWhile Old Irish was radically pro-drop (no pronominal argument could be overt except as an index), Modern Irish requires A/S independent subject pronouns, and in some dialects, including the standard variety, even expletives (for example see RAIN, but also examples 46, 398). This holds with the exception of a few relic 1st, 2nd and 3rd plural person-inflected forms, as mentioned above (see e.g. example 143). No trace of object indexing is on the other hand preserved in Modern Irish varieties. Pronominal objects and the pronominal S arguments of passive and copular forms tend to be displaced in clause-final position (VSXO, VXS).
\nRelativized A/S/P arguments, whose syntactic function in the relative clause is coded through a distinct relative particle and a specific initial mutation on the verb, are considered the same as non-relativized ones.
\nPassive forms, termed autonomous forms in grammars, qualify as desubjectives, since pronominal S arguments surface as object forms, i.e. they are coded the same as P. With transitive and intransitive verbs, passive forms may behave as impersonals, i.e. the A or S argument is suppressed, interpreted as non-referential indefinite, and only prepositional arguments are overt.
\nPrepositions inflect for person, i.e., pronominal dependents of prepositions are obligatorily fused with them (head-marking), e.g. to Conall = do Chonall, to him = d\u00f3 or dh\u00f3, to me = dom or dhom, to you (sg.) = duit or dhuit. Cross-reference of nominal objects of prepositions is generally prohibited, although a few prepositions adopt the 3SG masculine inflected form before definite noun phrases, e.g. le duine \u2018with a person\u2019, leis an duine \u2018with the person\u2019, cf. leis \u2018with him\u2019.
\nWord order is the main device that keeps A/S and P apart, through VSO order, in particular with nominals, since there is no nominative/accusative case distinction. As mentioned above, pronominal objects and the pronominal S arguments of passive and copular forms, whether they have different case-forms for A/S and P or not, tend to be displaced in clause-final position (VSXO, VXS).
\nArguments may be fronted for pragmatic reasons, mostly in left dislocations (with resumption through a pronominal form) or clefting, which, broadly speaking, are topicalising and focusing constructions respectively.
\nDifferent word orders occur with non-finite verbal forms; they may be grouped into two main constructions (VS/O vs. S/O do V):
\nStrictly speaking, only in the second construction is word order the crucial element for argument identification. The two main non finite-constructions have been labelled as follows: the first one as verbal noun/infinitive and the second one as verbal noun with preposed argument/infinitive 2.
\nAs note above, while nominal genitives always follow their syntactic head, pronominal genitives (possessives) are proclitic to their nominal heads, on which they trigger initial consonant mutations.
\nData were collected in 2025 for the 80 core meanings in ValPaL, plus a few additional ones that correspond to the Old Irish added meanings. Counterparts were selected generally among the ones suggested in the New Irish-English dictionary, relying on the Corpas N\u00e1isi\u00fanta na Gaeilge (CNG: Bhreathnach, \u00da., M\u011bchura, M., \u00d3 Cleirc\u00edn, G., \u00d3 Meachair, M., \u00d3 Raghallaigh, B., Scannell, K. & U\u00ed Dhonnchadha, E., Corpas N\u00e1isi\u00fanta na Gaeilge \u2013 National Corpus of Irish. Dublin City University, 2024) and on the dialect repository Taisce Chan\u00faint\u00ed na Gaeilge (Palandri, A., Bhreathnach, \u00da., M\u011bchura, M., \u00d3 Cleirc\u00edn, G. & \u00d3 Raghallaigh, B., Taisce Chan\u00faint\u00ed na Gaeilge - Repository of Irish Dialects. Dublin City University, 2025), which have both been sources for the examples. The Corpas N\u00e1isi\u00fanta na Gaeilge is a broadly lemmatised collection of both written and spoken texts (reported in standard spelling), which span the period 2000-2024. It is a balanced corpus of 100 million words, with written sources however largely prevailing. The repository Taisce Chan\u00faint\u00ed na Gaeilge is on the other hand an audio archive, a collection of spoken texts recorded between the 1940s and 1990s in various Irish-speaking areas, originally broadcast on Raidi\u00f3 \u00c9ireann and Raidi\u00f3 na Gaeltachta, converted into audio files with accompanying adapted spelling.
\nExamples in the database are therefore generally taken from contemporary written sources if from CNG, from contemporary spoken sources if from CNG, TG4 (Irish Television Channel) or if otherwise specified in the comments, and from 20th century spoken sources if from Taisce Chan\u00faint\u00ed na Gaeilge. An attempt has been made to identify basic frames relying on mutual agreement of both corpora.
\nA single example from the Connemara dialect is taken from Caint Chonamara, a collection of everyday conversations recorded in the Connemara Gaeltacht in 1964, as quoted in the Briathra/Verbs section of the dictionary Pota Focal (Wigger, A., Valency dictionary of Irish Verbs).
\nThe main contributor, Elisa Roma, is associate professor of General and Celtic Linguistics at the University of Pavia. Andrea Palandri, Comhalta Taighde/ Research Fellow at Fiontar & Scoil na Gaeilge, Ollscoil Chathair Bhaile \u00c1tha Cliath (Dublin City University), has given fundamental input to employ the repository of Irish dialects, and has suggested counterpart choices, examples and emendations.
", "latitude": 53.22, "longitude": -7.62}, "name": "Irish"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [-7.62, 53.22]}, "id": "iris1253"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 3954, "basic_codingframe_pk": 1914, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "clas1256-be-sad-1", "name": "trtmel", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 3458, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 3458, "jsondata": {}, "id": "clas1256-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 41, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 41, "source": null}}], "label": "trtmel", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 41, "glottocode": "clas1256", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "clas1256", "name": "Classical Armenian", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 40.0, "longitude": 45.0}, "name": "Classical Armenian"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [45.0, 40.0]}, "id": "clas1256"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 4021, "basic_codingframe_pk": 2001, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "olde1238-be-sad-1", "name": "unr\u014dtsian", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 3524, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 3524, "jsondata": {}, "id": "olde1238-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 42, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 42, "source": null}}], "label": "unr\u014dtsian", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 42, "glottocode": "olde1238", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "olde1238", "name": "Old English", "description": "#### General comment\n\nOld English is an ancient Germanic language, belonging to the subbranch of West-Germanic, in particular to the group of the so-called Ingvaeonic languages. The Old English period started in the V century AD; however, the first attestations are only brief runic inscriptions, which are comprehensible to a limited extent. (Francovich-Onesti 2002: 92). It is only in VIII century AD that the production in Old English starts flourishing. Conventionally, the Old English period ends in 1066, when the Normans guided by William the Conqueror conquered England and replaced its aristocracy with a new, French-speaking \u00e9lite.\n\nThe coding frames given here include all arguments/adjuncts of the pre-defined role frame with the corresponding Old English case-marking, plus a few additional ones that were found regularly in the sources.\n\n\n#### Characterization of flagging resources\n\nThe major resource for argument/adjunct identification is case marking, which applies regularly to all noun phrases. After some merging processes, only four of the eight original IE cases are found in Old English: nominative, accusative, genitive, and dative. Some traces of a fifth case, the instrumental, are also present, but remain residual. Cases can serve both syntactic and semantic functions, the latter being coded also by prepositional phrases. The nominative marks what, in traditional Indo-European studies, is called \u2018subject\u2019 (both S/A). The accusative generally marks the direct object or could be used adverbially in expressions of time and space extent. The dative generally marks the indirect object (mainly R). Besides that, it encompasses a variety of additional functions, such as indicate possession or be used adverbially. The genitive has both adnominal and adverbial functions\n\nAccusative, dative and genitive could also be found in PPs, headed by a variety of adpositions, the most common of which is to+dat.\n\nDitransitives usually adhere to the indirective alignment, with few exceptions (notably TEACH, that allows neutral alignment and FILL, that allows secundative alignment).\n\n\n#### Characterization of indexing resources\n\nNominal subjects in the nominative case are always cross-referenced by verbal endings on the verb, (though some show form syncretism). Both A and S trigger agreement with the verb and are encoded in the same way, i.e. the nominative, differently from O. This results in a nominative-accusative alignment.\n\n\n#### Characterization of ordering resources\n\nWord order in Old English is not as rigid as in Modern English. The three most common orders (both in prose and in poetry, even though in the latter more freedom is allowed) are i) SV, found both in principals and subordinates; ii) S\u2026V, i.e. verb-final, which was most common in subordinates, but could also be found in principals; iii) VS, found in positive and negative non-dependent questions, positive and negative statements, concessive and conditional subordinates and principals introduced by certain adverbs (Mitchell & Robinson 2012: 63-65). Other word orders may occur and be used for emphasis. \n\nDespite its freedom, Old English already exhibits some preferences for the SVO order (Mitchell & Robinson 2015: 65). However, as other Germanic languages, Old English also exhibits V2, i.e. the tendency of the verb to follow the first constituent, regardless of the type of constituent, i.e. whether it is a subject, object, PP, adverb, etc. (Van Kemenade 2012: 823). \n\nConcerning the order of other constituents, nouns are generally preceded by modifiers (e.g. demonstratives or adjectives) and by genitive complements, but the latter can follow the noun if this is preceded by another modifier. In PPs, adpositions tend to precede a noun but generally follow a pronoun and, even more frequently, a verb form.\n\n\n#### Source of the data and generalizations/background of the contributor(s)\n\nData were collected in the second half of 2022 and in 2023 for the 80 core meanings in ValPaL, from a subset of the [YCOE (Taylor et al. 2003)](https://www.ling.upenn.edu/mideng/ppcme2dir/YCOE/YcoeHome.htm) and [YCOEP (Pintzuk & Plug 2002)](https://www-users.york.ac.uk/~lang18/pcorpus.html) treebanks. The list of texts selected as sample can be found at the following link: [https://drive.google.com/file/d/1kGDLULwAoNdWDUwQ_8YeN7qZq47_-GT9/view?usp=sharing](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1kGDLULwAoNdWDUwQ_8YeN7qZq47_-GT9/view?usp=sharing).\n\nCounterparts to verb meanings were selected searching the electronic [Bosworth-Toller Dictionary](https://bosworthtoller.com/) and the [Dictionary of Old English](https://doe.artsci.utoronto.ca/). Occasionally, examples were taken from other texts in the treebanks or from the above-mentioned dictionaries when occurrences were missing in corpus samples but the patterns were clearly attested elsewhere. \n\nThe contributor, Martina Giarda, is a PhD Student in Linguistic Sciences at the University of Pavia and the University of Bergamo.", "markup_description": "Old English is an ancient Germanic language, belonging to the subbranch of West-Germanic, in particular to the group of the so-called Ingvaeonic languages. The Old English period started in the V century AD; however, the first attestations are only brief runic inscriptions, which are comprehensible to a limited extent. (Francovich-Onesti 2002: 92). It is only in VIII century AD that the production in Old English starts flourishing. Conventionally, the Old English period ends in 1066, when the Normans guided by William the Conqueror conquered England and replaced its aristocracy with a new, French-speaking \u00e9lite.
\nThe coding frames given here include all arguments/adjuncts of the pre-defined role frame with the corresponding Old English case-marking, plus a few additional ones that were found regularly in the sources.
\nThe major resource for argument/adjunct identification is case marking, which applies regularly to all noun phrases. After some merging processes, only four of the eight original IE cases are found in Old English: nominative, accusative, genitive, and dative. Some traces of a fifth case, the instrumental, are also present, but remain residual. Cases can serve both syntactic and semantic functions, the latter being coded also by prepositional phrases. The nominative marks what, in traditional Indo-European studies, is called \u2018subject\u2019 (both S/A). The accusative generally marks the direct object or could be used adverbially in expressions of time and space extent. The dative generally marks the indirect object (mainly R). Besides that, it encompasses a variety of additional functions, such as indicate possession or be used adverbially. The genitive has both adnominal and adverbial functions
\nAccusative, dative and genitive could also be found in PPs, headed by a variety of adpositions, the most common of which is to+dat.
\nDitransitives usually adhere to the indirective alignment, with few exceptions (notably TEACH, that allows neutral alignment and FILL, that allows secundative alignment).
\nNominal subjects in the nominative case are always cross-referenced by verbal endings on the verb, (though some show form syncretism). Both A and S trigger agreement with the verb and are encoded in the same way, i.e. the nominative, differently from O. This results in a nominative-accusative alignment.
\nWord order in Old English is not as rigid as in Modern English. The three most common orders (both in prose and in poetry, even though in the latter more freedom is allowed) are i) SV, found both in principals and subordinates; ii) S\u2026V, i.e. verb-final, which was most common in subordinates, but could also be found in principals; iii) VS, found in positive and negative non-dependent questions, positive and negative statements, concessive and conditional subordinates and principals introduced by certain adverbs (Mitchell & Robinson 2012: 63-65). Other word orders may occur and be used for emphasis.
\nDespite its freedom, Old English already exhibits some preferences for the SVO order (Mitchell & Robinson 2015: 65). However, as other Germanic languages, Old English also exhibits V2, i.e. the tendency of the verb to follow the first constituent, regardless of the type of constituent, i.e. whether it is a subject, object, PP, adverb, etc. (Van Kemenade 2012: 823).
\nConcerning the order of other constituents, nouns are generally preceded by modifiers (e.g. demonstratives or adjectives) and by genitive complements, but the latter can follow the noun if this is preceded by another modifier. In PPs, adpositions tend to precede a noun but generally follow a pronoun and, even more frequently, a verb form.
\nData were collected in the second half of 2022 and in 2023 for the 80 core meanings in ValPaL, from a subset of the YCOE (Taylor et al. 2003) and YCOEP (Pintzuk & Plug 2002) treebanks. The list of texts selected as sample can be found at the following link: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1kGDLULwAoNdWDUwQ_8YeN7qZq47_-GT9/view?usp=sharing.
\nCounterparts to verb meanings were selected searching the electronic Bosworth-Toller Dictionary and the Dictionary of Old English. Occasionally, examples were taken from other texts in the treebanks or from the above-mentioned dictionaries when occurrences were missing in corpus samples but the patterns were clearly attested elsewhere.
\nThe contributor, Martina Giarda, is a PhD Student in Linguistic Sciences at the University of Pavia and the University of Bergamo.
", "latitude": 51.2, "longitude": -1.51}, "name": "Old English"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [-1.51, 51.2]}, "id": "olde1238"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 4118, "basic_codingframe_pk": 2168, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "oldh1241-be-sad-1", "name": "tr\u016breg wesan", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 3605, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 3605, "jsondata": {}, "id": "oldh1241-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 43, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 43, "source": null}}, {"pk": 4119, "basic_codingframe_pk": 2168, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "oldh1241-be-sad-2", "name": "tr\u016br\u0113n", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 3605, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 3605, "jsondata": {}, "id": "oldh1241-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 43, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 43, "source": null}}], "label": "tr\u016breg wesan, tr\u016br\u0113n", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 43, "glottocode": "oldh1241", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "oldh1241", "name": "Old High German", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 52.0, "longitude": 10.0}, "name": "Old High German"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [10.0, 52.0]}, "id": "oldh1241"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 4207, "basic_codingframe_pk": 2210, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "adjective with copulaOld Irish is the Celtic variety of the Gaelic branch documented in various manuscript sources dating from the late 7th to the 9th century AD (see Source of the data below).
\nAny noun phrase (argument or adjunct) is always optional and it was not possible to apply a test using the sentence frame suggested in the ValPaL manual to distinguish between arguments and adjuncts. The coding frames given here include all arguments/adjuncts of the pre-defined role frame with the corresponding Old Irish case-marking, plus a few additional ones that were found regularly in the sources.
\nThe database includes as coded alternations passive and non-finite constructions, but since A/S/O pronominal arguments must be indexed on verbal forms, verb inflection is regularly affected by the nature of arguments (see Characterization of indexing resources below). Each non-finite construction is included for a verb form if it is attested in the corpus for that verb.
\nThe major resource for argument/adjunct identification is case marking, which applies regularly to all noun phrases. Case forms used to flag arguments with finite verb forms are nominative (A/S) and accusative (O). The dative case is used with prepositions, alongside the accusative case, while the genitive is an adnominal case and may be used to flag arguments only in non-finite constructions (i.e., with verbal forms which have nominal rection), or when governed by prepositions which have nominal origin (e.g. dochum + gen \u2018towards\u2019, from a proclitic form of tochim \u2018(act of) stepping to\u2019).
\nThe prepositions most frequently used to flag arguments are: the dative preposition do (regularly used for recipients but also to flag A/S in non-finite constructions), the allative prepositions i+acc and co+acc, the ablative prepositions a+dat and \u00f3+dat, the locative preposition i+dat, the superessive and malefactive preposition for+acc. Less frequent ones are the directive preposition fri+acc, which flags addressees and in general faced participants, and the adessive preposition la+acc, which may flag experiencers, companions and agents with passive and non-finite forms. Note that pronominal objects of prepositions are obligatorily expressed as indexes (see below Characterization of indexing resources).
\nDitransitives usually adhere to the indirective alignment, with few exceptions (notably TEACH, that allows secundative alignment as well).
\nWhile nominal subjects in the nominative case are always cross-referenced by verbal endings on the verb, all pronominal direct arguments (A/S/O) are indexed on verbal forms and may not be expressed with independent, case-marked pronominal forms. They are indexed as follows:
\nPassive forms with speech-act participants, therefore, qualify as desubjectives. Since the alternation between case-marking and verb indexing for different persons is paradigmatic and exceptionless, the two strategies have been considered the same for the sake of coding frames. In a similar vein, relativized arguments, whose syntactic function in the relative clause is coded on the verb, are considered the same as non-relativized ones.
\nPrepositions inflect for person, i.e., pronominal dependents of prepositions are obligatorily fused with them (head-marking), e.g. to Conall = do Chonall, to him = d\u00f3, to me = dom, to you (sg.) = duit. Cross-reference of nominal objects of prepositions is however prohibited.
\nDespite having regular nominal and accusative case-marking and subject agreement, word order in Old Irish is rather rigid, at least strictly verb-initial, and regularly VSOX. Prepositional pronominal arguments, i.e. prepositions inflected for person, may precede a nominal direct object (VSXO). Arguments may be fronted for pragmatic reasons, mostly in left dislocations (with resumption through a pronominal index) or clefting, which, broadly speaking, are topicalising and focusing constructions respectively.
\nDifferent word orders occur with non-finite verbal forms; they may be grouped into two main constructions (VS/O vs. S/O do V):
\nStrictly speaking, only in the second construction is word order the crucial element for argument identification.
\nNon finite-constructions have been labelled and numbered as follows: 1 = O in the genitive, 2 = A/S in the genitive, 3 = only prepositional argument(s) overt, and 4 = no overt argument (only controlled arguments). The second construction above with preposed argument is labelled do+V(erbal)N(oun).
\nNote that while nominal genitives always follow their syntactic head, pronominal genitives (possessives) are proclitic to their nominal heads. Since this is a general paradigmatic rule and exceptionless, the two strategies have been considered the same for the sake of coding frames.
\nData were collected in the second half of 2023 and in 2024 for the 80 core meanings in ValPaL, plus a few additional ones, through the database Corpus Palaeohibernicum (CorPH). CorPH includes 13123 finite verb occurrences and 5340 non-finite verb occurrences; it comprises ca. 70 texts of different genres and sizes, covering the time-span labelled Early Irish (7th-10th cent.), which lumps together Old and early Middle Irish. Counterparts to verb meanings were selected searching the electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language eDIL. Occasionally, examples were taken from the W\u00fcrzburg Glosses, or from eDIL, when occurrences were missing in CorPH but the patterns were clearly attested elsewhere, including somewhat later sources (Middle Irish). For the meanings COUGH and HUG, however, only tentative corresponding expressions could be provided.
\nMorphological glosses are meant to be as simple as possible. Although Old Irish features many proclitics, including the definite article, prepositions, possessives, copular forms, usually spelt together with the stressed word that hosts them and causing initial mutations, the equal sign is used only for a specific kind of clitics, traditionally termed notae augentes or emphatic particles, namely pronominal enclitics that are attached to any host that includes a pronominal index. Angle brackets are used for pronominal object morphemes that appear between a lexical preverb and a verb root.
\nThe contributor, Elisa Roma, is associate professor of General and Celtic Linguistics at the University of Pavia. Acknowledgments are due to Michele Tron (PhD student in Linguistics at the University of Pavia) for proofreading and format corrections.
", "latitude": 53.0, "longitude": -8.0}, "name": "Old Irish"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [-8.0, 53.0]}, "id": "oldi1246"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 4300, "basic_codingframe_pk": 2349, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "naOld Norse a western variety of North Germanic and is the precursor to Modern Icelandic, with which it shares a substantial deal of morphology and lexicon. As the oldest and best attested variety of North Germanic, Old Norse is representative of that branch.
\nOld Norse has four cases, nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. These are marked on nouns, pronouns, all adjectival elements and the definite article. Adjectives have two inflections, strong and weak. The former applies to adjectives used indefinitely attributively and predicatively. The weak adjectival declension is used when the modified noun is definite, either by means of a definite article or otherwise inherently definite such as the name of a person. The definitite article is usually cliticized on nouns, following an inflectional morpheme, so that definite nouns have double case marking.
\nOld Norse shows nominative-verb agreement so that the verb agrees with the noun in the nominative case. If no noun is in the nominative case, the verb is inflected in the third person singular.
\nGenerally, Old Norse is a V2 language with a quite stable SVO word order. However, deviances from this may appear in the sources, especially in the form of scrambling and topicalizations. An older SOV situation may at times surface in the language.
\nThe Old Norse data was elicited from the standard dictionary for Old Norse Ordbog over det norr\u00f8ne prosasprog. Matteo Tarsi holds a PhD in Icelandic linguistics from the University of Iceland (2020).
", "latitude": 64.672078, "longitude": -17.1311796}, "name": "Old Norse"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [-17.1311796, 64.672078]}, "id": "oldn1244"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 4509, "basic_codingframe_pk": 2684, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": null, "jsondata": {}, "id": "olds1252-be-sad-1", "name": "vara ledse", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "valueset_pk": 3923, "domainelement_pk": null, "frequency": null, "confidence": null, "domainelement": null, "valueset": {"pk": 3923, "jsondata": {}, "id": "olds1252-be-sad", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "language_pk": 47, "parameter_pk": 18, "contribution_pk": 47, "source": null}}], "label": "vara ledse", "icon": "data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyAgeG1sbnM9Imh0dHA6Ly93d3cudzMub3JnLzIwMDAvc3ZnIgogICAgICB4bWxuczp4bGluaz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMTk5OS94bGluayIgaGVpZ2h0PSI0MCIgd2lkdGg9IjQwIj4KICA8Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSIyMCIgY3k9IjIwIiByPSIxNCIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6IzAwRkYwMDtzdHJva2U6YmxhY2s7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjFweDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtbGluZWpvaW46cm91bmQ7Ii8+Cjwvc3ZnPg==", "language": {"macroarea": "Eurasia", "pk": 47, "glottocode": "olds1252", "family_pk": 7, "jsondata": {}, "id": "olds1252", "name": "Old Swedish", "description": null, "markup_description": null, "latitude": 59.8, "longitude": 17.39}, "name": "Old Swedish"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [17.39, 59.8]}, "id": "olds1252"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 4616, "basic_codingframe_pk": 2832, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Complex", "comment": "This is a complex verb classified here as a light verb-headed verb. This adjectival predicate is formed by the nominal \u00fczg\u00fcn 'sad' and the intransitive, stative/inchoative light verb olmak 'to be/to become'.Turkish is an agglutinative, morphologically rich language belonging to the Oghuz branch of the Turkic language family. Inflectional and derivational suffixes exhibit allomorphy. The choice of the right allomorph is determined by morphophonological constraints, namely intersyllabic front vs back harmony, labial harmony and consonant assimilation (Csat\u00f3 & Johanson 2021: 197-198).
\nThe constituent order of the main clause is a non-rigid SOV, with possible different orders to emphasize constituents for pragmatic reasons (Csat\u00f3 & Johanson 2021: 214, G\u00f6ksel & Kerslake 2004: 337, 344). Word order variation is subject to definiteness/specificity conditions.
\nPronominal arguments in both subject (S/A) and object position (O) can be either omitted or overtly expressed for pragmatic functions (Csat\u00f3 & Johanson 2021: 213). Subject agreement is expressed through a set of personal markers on the verb and, in case of nominal and adjectival predicates, on the nominals or on the forms of the copula.
\nTurkish is a dependent-marking language, but it shows double marking in possessive constructions.
\nValency changing operations (passive, reflexive, causative and reciprocal) are coded on the verb. Apart from the passive alternation, the passive suffix also codes the impersonal passive and the inchoative alternations. Not all suffixes are equally productive: the reflexive and the reciprocal markers only attach to a certain number of stems (G\u00f6ksel & Kerslake 2004: 72) and the verb thus derived often takes on a lexicalized meaning. In this case an analytical construction is available, where the underived verb and a pronoun convey the transparent reciprocal and reflexive meaning (Csat\u00f3 & Johanson 2021: 204-205). In such constructions, the valency of the verb remains unchanged, and therefore they have not been considered alternations for the purposes of the present project. Suffixes can be combined: apart from markers coding different valency changing operations, such as the productive combination causative + passive, also different allomorphs of the passive (up to two) and causative suffix (up to three) can be attached to a stem.
\nRegardless of their morphological complexity, verbs can be simple or compound. The latter can be further subdivided in three sub-categories: compound verbs with light verbs, compound verbs with a lexical verb and a cognate object, and compound verbs with a lexical verb and a non-cognate object. A syntactic property shared by the last two categories is the possibility, for the incorporated object, to behave as an argument when it is specific, i.e. when it takes a possessive suffix or a compound marker which triggers the accusative.
\nIn Turkish there are 7 cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, instrumental, comitative. The latter two are not considered core cases. (G\u00f6ksel & Kerslake 2004: 67, 154).
\nThe object can be unmarked provided that it is in preverbal position and that it is not specific (Csat\u00f3 & Johanson 2021: 215).
\nCertain arguments might either take the required case suffix or appear in a different case followed by postposition, the choice being motivated either by syntactic or semantic reasons. The first instance could be exemplified by the beneficiary, which might appear in the dative or in the nominative (genitive if it is a pronoun) case followed by the postposition i\u00e7in \u2018for\u2019. The latter option is preferred in causative sentences to avoid ambiguity, since the causee obligatorily takes the dative case (G\u00f6ksel & Kerslake 2004: 67, 132). The second instance is exemplified by the agent of personal passive sentences, which could be in the nominative (genitive if it is a pronoun) case followed by the postposition taraf\u0131ndan \u2018by\u2019, or it could take the suffix -CA if it has a collective meaning.
\nTurkish displays a nominative-accusative alignment, where the nominative is unmarked. The object can be unmarked provided that it is in preverbal position and that it is not definite (Csat\u00f3 & Johanson 2021: 215). The personal markers attach to verbs, to nominals or to copula particles and show subject agreement with the first and second persons. The third person singular has no specific marker, whereas the third plural marker is often omitted, coinciding formally with the third person singular form.
\nIn the case of impersonal passive constructions there is no agreement, as the verb is by default in the third personal singular (Zhaksybek 2023: 192).
\nData have been collected from various corpora contained in the [Leipzig Corpora Collection website])https://wortschatz.uni-leipzig.de/en/download/Turkish).
\nZeynep Erk Emeksiz is Associate Professor of linguistics in the Department of Turkish Language and Literature at Anadolu University, Eski\u015fehir, T\u00fcrkiye.
\nA. Sumru \u00d6zsoy is Em. Professor of linguistics in the Department of Linguistics at Bo\u011fazi\u00e7i University, T\u00fcrkiye.
\nMaria Chantal Seghedoni graduated from the Master\u2019s program in \u2018Theoretical and Applied Linguistics and Linguistics of Modern Languages\u2019 at the University of Pavia with a thesis titled \u2018Valency Patterns in Turkish.\u2019
", "latitude": 39.87, "longitude": 32.87}, "name": "Turkish"}, "geometry": {"type": "Point", "coordinates": [32.87, 39.87]}, "id": "nucl1301"}, {"type": "Feature", "properties": {"values": [{"pk": 4696, "basic_codingframe_pk": 3001, "original_script": null, "simplex_or_complex": "Simplex", "comment": "the base coding frame refers to the transitive active verb lup\u00e9\u014d 'make sad/make suffer'